Approximately 90% of primary and secondary CNS lymphomas are diffuse large B-cell lymphomas, with the minority made up of T-cell lymphomas, Burkitt lymphomas, and low-grade lymphomas. Primary CNS lymphoma is highly associated with HIV, and is the second most common cause of brain mass lesion (CNS toxoplasmosis is first) in patients with coexisting late-stage HIV and CD4 + T-lymphocyte count of <50 cells/𝜇L. Though CNS lymphoma is more common in men than in women with an average age of diagnosis of ~55 years, patients with coexisting AIDS are usually diagnosed at a much younger age of ~35 years. The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is found in ~99% of patients with AIDS-related primary CNS lymphoma, while found in ~90% of the general population. Patients with EBV + primary CNS lymphoma have a poorer prognosis than EBV patients as the EBV genome has been found to express anti-apoptotic genes in its genome, leading to malignant transformation of cancer cells.

Also called “low-pressure headaches,” intracranial hypotension headaches are most commonly caused by low CSF pressure due to a CSF leak through a dural leak, like after lumbar puncture. These leaks can also result from spine surgeries, erosion of the sinuses and/or the skull, and even vigorous exercise, while low CSF volume without a causal leak can occur due to severe dehydration and uremia.

A small, stout, shrub-like, erect, root-parasitic miniature woody tree of meagre size, with branches clustered near the top and ascending irregularly. The whole plant is hoary. The young shoots are brilliant crimson turning wine-red to purple with age.

Neurodegenerative diseases that mimic idiopathic Parkinson disease are often grouped under “Parkinson-plus syndromes.” Multiple system atrophy (MSA) is one such disease. It is a synucleinopathy similar to idiopathic Parkinson disease. Based on the predominant symptoms, MSA is divided into three categories.

In his chapter on “Art” in Roman Britain and the English Settlements, Collingwood attempts to explain the revival of Celtic art that occurred in Britain after a period of Roman art of almost four hundred years. In his Autobiography he declared this was “a chapter which I would gladly leave as the sole memorial of my Romano-British studies, and the best example I can give to posterity of how to solve a much-debated problem in history, not by discovering fresh evidence, but by reconsidering questions of principle.” This chapter has received little attention from archaeologists and historians (and even less from philosophers), exception from Martin Henig in his book The Art of Roman Britain. I defend Collingwood from Henig’s criticisms and try to make his explanation more understandable by placing it in his own historical context. Here I follow Collingwood’s advice that we may better understand an explanation when we understand the context from which it originates. This is not to say Collingwood’s explanation is without shortcomings. I demonstrate how these are brought to light when his explanation for the revival of Celtic art is compared to more recent treatments of this phenomenon.

Also known by its abbreviation SUNCT, short-lasting unilateral neuralgiform attacks with conjunctival injection and tearing syndrome is the rarest type of the trigeminal autonomic cephalgias. Those with SUNCT suffer multiple days of painful “attacks” characterized by a sharp stabbing or pulsatile pain located in or around one eye or temporal area. Attacks occur up to 200 times per day, lasting only 5 seconds to 4 minutes each, and are accompanied by autonomic symptoms, such as lacrimation and/or conjunctival injection that occurs ipsilateral to the facial pain. Patients with SUNCT also report that these attacks can often be triggered by touching the area affected by the attack or even moving their head. Between attacks, most patients report no pain, though some report a lingering dull painful sensation.

Most commonly occurring in middle age (35–45 years old), oligodendrogliomas are the third most common type of glial cell tumor, representing only 1–5% of all primary brain tumors. These patients commonly present with seizures; however, they can have a wide variety of signs and symptoms depending on tumor location, size, and grade.

Caused by inflammation of the vestibular portion of cranial nerve eight (vestibulocochlear nerve), vestibular neuritis (VN) is one of the most common causes of acute peripheral vertigo. Though the exact cause of highly localized inflammation is unknown, it is generally thought to be caused by post-viral inflammation, especially to latent HSV.

This chapter presents a synthesis of two key constructs: nature-based approaches and experiential learning. The first part of this chapter presents an overview of nature-based approaches. Research perspectives are presented to outline the importance of natural spaces in nurturing children and young people’s wellbeing, connection with nature, development of ecological awareness and holistic engagement with learning. Experiential learning theory is defined and described to examine the transformational potential of learning experienced outdoors. The interactive relationship and theoretical perspectives underlying experiential approaches are presented.

The second part of this chapter presents discussion on nature-based programs such as Forest Schools, Bush Kinders and Schools, and Nature/Environmental Kindergartens and Schools. Case studies will provide authentic contexts to highlight key aspects of intentional practice that enhance experiential learning and inquiry in nature-based settings. Finally, a synthesis of enabling practice is presented to further consider specific pedagogical implications underlying nature based approaches.

Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) are characterized as transient focal neurological episodes, usually lasting only minutes, which correspond with a vascular territory and resolve spontaneously leaving no permanent clinical sign or observable changes on neuroimaging. These episodes can theoretically involve any cerebrovascular territory. The mechanism behind TIAs is thought to be either hypoperfusion of a vascular territory due to reduced blood flow in the setting of focal vascular stenosis or an embolic particle that dissolves shortly after occluding a vessel.

This chapter reveals how Aboriginal people adopted and integrated alphabetic script into their art, recognising the potential of this kind of knowledge transmission and blurring the categories imposed on their pasts. Focusing on the biography of artist Narlim, we reveal how he integrated alphabetic script into his art at times, experimenting with different forms of communication.

In the Islamic tradition, Jesus is revered as a prophet to the Israelites, not as divine himself. The Qur’an selectively adopts Christian narrative lore about Jesus and Mary, omitting key gospel narratives like the passion. Jesus’s miraculous conception is acknowledged, paralleling Christian tradition without implying divinity, while his death on the cross is recast as a divine deliverance of Jesus from his enemies. The post-Qur’anic tradition portrays Jesus as a world-renouncing ascetic and stresses his humanity and subordination to God.

First described by neurologists James Lance and Raymond Adams in 1963, Lance–Adams syndrome (LAS) is a chronic hyperkinetic involuntary movement disorder caused by anoxic brain injury, often secondary to cardiopulmonary arrest. Unlike acute post-anoxic myoclonus, which manifests acutely hours to days after cardiopulmonary arrest, LAS is a chronic sequela appearing days to weeks after the arrest, once the patient has regained consciousness, and often much of their baseline cognitive function. Though cardiac arrest is the most common inciting event, other causes of hypoxic brain injury have been reported to result in LAS such as surgical accidents, attempted suicides, drug overdoses, and asthma attacks.

First described by English surgeon and apothecary Dr. James Parkinson in 1817, the disease now known as Parkinson disease (PD) was first described in a 66-page treatise entitled An Essay on the Shaking Palsy, a disease he first names “Paralysis Agitans.” PD is a neurodegenerative disease, characterized by abnormal deposition of alpha-synculein. Histopathologically, the brain tissue of those with PD demonstrates eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions called Lewy bodies. The Braak hypothesis suggests that the synucleinopathy in idiopathic PD follows a specific pattern with initial deposition seen in dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus that spreads through the brain in a prion-like fashion. The involvement of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta leads to the motor signs of idiopathic PD.

Medium-sized to slender and tall tropical evergreen trees, especially characterised by being one of a few resiniferous genera whose leaves are wide and ovate, with multiple sub-parallel and fine longitudinal veins. Each leaf terminates in a distinctive drip-tip.

Dioecious, evergreen, slow-growing, resiniferous woody slender trees, attaining moderate size, of monopodial habit when young but becoming of more or less gracefully irregular habit with maturity, with spreading to pendulous large sickle-shaped leaves which are conspicuously white-banded beneath. It differs from the much more common Cephalotaxus vegetatively in its larger and broader more horizontally held leaves, and reproductively in its simpler seed-bearing structures but more complexly structured male ones.