This exploratory study sheds new light on students’ perceptions of online feedback types for a complex writing task, summary writing from spoken input in a foreign language (L2), and investigates how these correlate with their actual learning to write. Students tend to favour clear-cut, instructivist rather than constructivist feedback, and guided self-evaluation through model solutions in online learning environments. However, the former type is too limited to tackle all dimensions of advanced writing. Constructivist feedback, in the form of guided modelling, allows addressing the higher-order concerns involved in summary writing. In addition, it is widely acknowledged that activating the zone of proximal development (ZPD) through cognitive involvement is beneficial to learning. To investigate students’ learning from both types of feedback, a one-group pre-post-test intervention study was set up. Students attending a course on summary writing in L2 within a bachelor programme in Applied Languages (n=38) followed an individual online learning module containing both instructivist fill-the-gap exercises and model solutions with constructivist guiding questions for self-assessment. The students’ actual learning gain was measured through pre- and post-tests, and compared with their perceived learning gain, as expressed in self-evaluation. The comparison reveals a dichotomy between the students’ observed learning curve and an underestimation of their own progress. This dichotomy was found to originate in a mismatch between their expectations towards the online learning module and the characteristics of the constructivist feedback conveyed. This mismatch can be attributed to three key factors: (1) evaluation, (2) linguistic focus, and (3) learner motivation.

Despite the rapid development of virtual exchange in foreign language education, its use in the field of Chinese language education is still rather nascent. Adopting a mixed-methods research approach, this study focuses on examining the pedagogical benefits of a Chinese-American virtual exchange as mediated by students’ self-reported data. Two Chinese language classes (i.e. one at the elementary level and one at the intermediate level) at a small liberal arts college in the United States and a group of Chinese-speaking English majors at a Chinese university in Shanghai participated in the exchange. Analyses of four sources of qualitative data (i.e. WeChat group cultural discussion transcripts, Skype conversations, reflection journals, and end-of-program interviews) gave rise to four benefits of the exchange: promotion of cultural learning, improvement of Chinese language skills, enhancement of learning motivation, and establishment of a language learning community. Quantitative analyses of the end-of-semester questionnaire items show that the benefit regarding cultural learning, on average, received the highest rating, followed by community building and motivation enhancement, with improvement of Chinese skills being rated the lowest. Moreover, intermediate-level students evaluated all four benefits with higher ratings than elementary-level students. In particular, the two groups’ quantitative evaluations in terms of Chinese skills and motivation differed significantly. However, both groups enthusiastically endorsed the benefits of cultural learning and community building. The pedagogical implications of these results are also discussed.

This paper illustrates how a freely available online corpus has been exploited in a module on teaching business letters covering the following four speech acts (functions) commonly found in business letters: invitations, requests, complaints and refusals. It is proposed that different strategies are required for teaching potentially non-face-threatening (invitations, requests) and face-threatening (complaints, refusals) speech acts.

The hands-on pedagogic activities follow the ‘guided inductive approach’ advocated by Johansson (2009) and draw on practices and strategies covered in the literature on using corpora in language learning and teaching, viz. the need for ‘pedagogic mediation’, and the ‘noticing’ hypothesis from second language acquisition studies.

This paper describes an English language listening test intended as computer-based testing material for secondary school students in Hong Kong, where considerable attention is being invested in online and computer-based testing. As well as providing a school-based testing facility, the study aims to contribute to the knowledge base regarding the efficacy and reliability of computer-based testing. The paper describes the construction of an item bank of over 400 short listening items calibrated on item response theory principles. Items from this bank were used to form a traditional paper-based listening test, and an adaptive computer-based test. Both forms of the test were administered to two Hong Kong Grade 11 and Grade 12 classes. Descriptive test statistics indicated that both test types discriminated effectively between school grades. In terms of comparability between test types, there was significant difference between the Grade 11 classes’ performance although not with that of Grade 12. Test takers generally performed better on the computer-based test than on the paper-based test, confirming earlier research. Interviews with test takers after taking both tests indicated an even split in terms of preference, with boys opting for the computer-based test and girls the paper-based test. Correlations between test takers’ performance on the two test types were high enough to indicate the computer-based test’s potential as a low-stakes test (its intended purpose as a school-based testing facility), although not as a high-stakes test (for example, as a territory-wide test replacing a traditional paper-based test).

The present study investigated Japanese students’ EFL vocabulary development through e-mail interactions with a native English speaker (NS), with primary focus on students’ imitation of new words. According to sociocultural theory, learners can internalize new linguistic knowledge by imitating an expert’s expressions to create his/her own utterances. This study, therefore, specifically examined whether (1) students could imitate the new vocabulary items provided by the NS tutor, and (2) they could retain these items at the end of the project. An examination of the e-mail log showed that students did imitate and use some of the lexis provided by the NS. The results of the post-test also revealed that some of the imitated words were subsequently retained. However, there were some words that had been learned without imitation. The questionnaire survey and the students’ interview comments indicated that students memorized a considerable number of new words provided by the NS by repeatedly reading them in e-mail text, as well as in other learning contexts, such as regular classes and independent study, through noticing, retrieving, and generating the meaning/form of each word (Nation, 2001). The study concluded that vocabulary learning via e-mail takes place not only by a single process such as imitation, but also by a combination of various processes functioning in an integrated manner.

This study reports on the integration of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) multimedia courseware for oral presentations into a self-learning and elective program for non-English major students in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) setting. A computer-aided instruction approach, combined with a task-based learning approach, was adopted. Computers played a central role as the means of information delivery. The courseware acted as a silent partner and played the role of a tutor and adjunct teacher to provide students with authentic materials for learning to give English oral presentations in international business and technical settings. It offered a variety of learning activities with instant on-line self-evaluation for students to practice integrative language skills and learn content knowledge. Evaluation of student performance was based upon data from pre- and post-tasks, student questionnaires about concerns, and an open-ended questionnaire. After active participation and self-learning, most of the non-English major students clearly indicated they had made some improvement or progress and felt their learning effectiveness for preparing speech texts was significantly improved. In addition, they had become more concerned about their English ability and the ESP courseware was able to meet their need for greater linguistic support to enhance their language ability.

Tandem language learning is based on a partnership between two people, each of whom is learning the other's language. Successful tandem partnerships observe the principle of reciprocity (“tandem learners support one another equally’) and the principle of learner autonomy (“tandem partners are responsible for their own learning”) (Little and Brammerts 1996: 1 Off.). This paper begins by exploring some of the theoretical implications of tandem language learning in general and tandem language learning via e-mail in particular. It then reports on the pilot phase of an e-mail tandem project involving Irish university students learning German and German university students learning English.

Videoconferencing has been proposed as a technology which has an immediate and beneficial application to language learning, because it enables face-to-face communication at a distance. The costs remain high, however, and course providers need to be sure what additional ‘pedagogical overheads’ are involved, i.e. in the rethinking of teaching approaches and the preparation of material. This paper reports on a study of a videoconference tutorial carried out as part of the distance learning component of a course in Professional English. The study shows that the interaction between teacher, subject expert and students was characterised by the absence, as well as the presence, of important features of face-to-face communication, and that certain kinds of tutorial activity, such as individual correction, and the management of group discussion, were not especially well supported by the technology used. We discuss the implications of this for the pedagogy of language teaching by videoconference, and draw some lessons for the incorporation of the technology into the mainstream of distance language learning.

Faced with reduced numbers choosing to study foreign languages (as in England and Wales), strategies to create and maintain student interest need to be explored. One such strategy is to create ‘taster’ courses in languages, for potential university applicants. The findings presented arise from exploratory research, undertaken to inform the design of a selection of web-based taster courses for less widely taught languages. 687 school students, aged 14-18, were asked to identify a web site that they liked and to state their main reason for liking it. They were invited to include recreational sites and told that their answers could help with web design for the taster courses. To explore the reasons, two focus groups were conducted and student feedback on the developing taster course site was collected. Students nominated search engines and academic sites, sites dedicated to hobbies, enthusiasms, youth culture and shopping. They liked them for their visual attributes, usability, interactivity, support for schoolwork and for their cultural and heritage associations, as well as their content and functionality. They emerged as sensitive readers of web content, visually aware and with clear views on how text should be presented. These findings informed design of the taster course site. They are broadly in line with existing design guidelines but add to our knowledge about school students’ use of the web and about designing web-based learning materials. They may also be relevant to web design at other levels, for example for undergraduates.

This study concerned multiple exposures to English before writing and aimed to explore the possibility of an increase in free active vocabulary with a focus on latent productive vocabulary beyond the first 2,000 most frequent words. The researcher incorporated online video into her college freshman composition class and examined its effects on non-basic vocabulary use. To activate previously known vocabulary, a variety of audiovisual modes before writing were applied to four groups alternately: (1) video with captions, (2) video without captions, (3) silent video with captions, and (4) video with screen off (soundtrack only). The results show that the writing involving non-captioned videos contained a higher percentage of advanced vocabulary than that with the other three conditions (specifically, 12.45% versus 11.33% with captioned videos, 5.2% with silent but captioned videos and 8.63% with audio only). Drawing upon the dual-coding theory, this study also points out some pedagogical implications for a video-based writing course.

This paper presents the results of a study exploring the intercultural development of first-year Japanese university students engaged in online intercultural exchange (OIE) using two variations: one implementing guided reflection, and the other relying on the learner autonomy model. Intercultural development was quantitatively measured using the Intercultural Sensitivity Scale (Chen & Starosta, 2000) and qualitatively investigated through participants’ written reflections. Results of the OIE using guided reflection showed significant gains in respect for the target culture, whereas the OIE that followed the autonomous learning model yielded significant gains in self-efficacy in relation to intercultural contact. Qualitative analysis of student reflections confirmed these findings and provided insight into the processes involved in achieving these results.

Language massive open online courses (LMOOCs) represent an exciting prospect for language teachers and instructors around the globe (Bárcena & Martín-Monje, 2014). In this paper, we report on the dynamics of participation and learner behaviour in an ab initio Irish language course. The course, Irish 101, ran during March 2019, and we used a mixed-methods approach to analyse both typical patterns of behaviour among course participants and learner reflections upon their reasons for doing so. Findings suggest that most learners use the course resources in an assessing and exploratory manner and are far less likely to produce, or to examine, second language (L2) output, either written or spoken. Learners were found to be selective and to demonstrate significant metacognitive awareness (Wenden, 1998) in their interactions and learning methods, displaying agency and exploiting affordances beyond the design of the course itself. Implications for LMOOC design, including the need to question whether courses should emphasise L2 production or resource provision, are considered, in addition to a general need for more granular, dynamic research, so as to better understand the types of learners who engage in LMOOCs and to better cater to diverse learning needs.

Compared to traditional pen-and-paper presentation of information, computer-assisted argument mapping seems to be more efficient in developing lower order thinking skills such as memory and comprehension. The present study investigated the impact of argument map construction and reading via computer versus pen and paper on English as a foreign language (EFL) majors’ comprehension, recall, and retention of argumentative texts. To this end, 120 Iranian EFL undergraduates were divided into low and high proficiency levels after taking a language proficiency test. Next, they were randomly assigned to two experimental groups; each group received 12 sessions of argument mapping instruction, one via computer and the other via pen and paper. At the end of the term, participants randomly received two argument map sizes (small vs. large) and were given 15 minutes to read the maps. Then tests of recall and comprehension relevant to the maps were administered, followed by a test of retention within a two-week interval. The results revealed that after controlling for spatial and verbal covariates, the type of treatment had a significant effect on recall, retention, and comprehension, with the software group outperforming the pen-and-paper group; however, proficiency level and argument size did not show any significant effect.

Language learners today exhibit a strong preference for free online resources. One problem with such resources is that their quality can vary dramatically. Building on related work on monolingual resources for English, we propose an evaluation framework for online bilingual dictionaries, designed to assess lexicographic quality in four major areas: coverage of lexical items, their treatment in the entries, access to lexical information, and presentation of lexicographic data. The proposed framework is applied to a set of six popular bilingual English-Polish dictionaries freely available online, established through an online survey of Polish learners of English.

By providing access, data and new forms of literacy and communication practices, it is widely accepted that networked technologies have done much to promote learner autonomy. However, in practical terms, the lack of resources, expertise and research investigations into learner interaction have all too often meant that autonomous learning is conveniently likened to teacher-independent learning, largely relying on the success and assumed intuitiveness of the World Wide Web (web) for its learner driven delivery. This situation affecting foreign language teaching and learning has been further aggravated by the recent trend, at least in UK universities, to conceive languages solely as communicative tools, further severing them from their academic base and cultural roots, often reducing learner autonomy to poor repetitive interaction. On this premise, this paper proposes to focus on how to make better use of the interactive potential of the web in order to maximise independent language learning online. From a Human Computer Interaction (HCI) design perspective, it intends to shed further light on and increase our understanding of hypermedia and multimedia structures through learner participation and evaluation. On the basis of evidence from an ongoing research investigation into online CALL literacy, it will seek to identify crucial causalities between the user interface and learner interaction affecting the learners’ focus and engagement within their own learning processes. The adopted methodology combines a task analysis of a hypermedia prototype underpinned by an activity theory approach and participatory design based on user walkthroughs and focus groups. By looking at the relationship between action and goal as well as between activities and motives, it attempts to provide a framework for evaluating online hypermedia interactivity based on identified activities, design tasks and design criteria.

As more and more teacher preparation programs realize the need to include courses that deal with computer-assisted language learning, a crucial decision as to what is taught needs to be made, taking into consideration the various post-graduation goals ranging from teacher or teacher-trainer to researcher. Thus, the question of whether to go beyond teaching the potential uses of the computer and the Internet and to delve into how to create relevant computer-based tasks using the WWW and to train teachers in the use of advanced web page development techniques, including Flash, web-enabled databases, and the interactive possibilities of the WWW needs to be addressed. This paper tackles these issues and illustrates a sample approach in dealing with the grooming of the new generation of CALL researchers and practitioners. What can be accomplished during the first year of an MATESL program that highlights the importance of technology is explored through a reflective questionnaire, a computer capabilities matrix, and an analysis of web-based course projects. Nine first-year M.A. students participated in the study, which revealed that despite widely differing initial computer and Internet expertise among these future teachers and researchers, their knowledge of creating and using web-based materials increased significantly, culminating in a project in which the skills acquired throughout the semester were successfully integrated.

It is usually the case that learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) are exposed to language materials in class only, and of course in such a short space of time, they do not always find enough chance to practice English grammar features and become aware of their grammar mistakes. As a potential solution to this problem, the current study inspects the impact of using cell phones, specifically text messages (via short message service) as supplementary tools, on Iranian elementary level EFL learners’ grammar learning. In the first phase of the study, 60 students aged 14 were randomly divided into experimental and comparison groups. Throughout the 12 weeks of treatment, the participants in the experimental group received 120 text messages containing grammar exercises, whereas the participants in the comparison group received a similar number of vocabulary messages as a placebo treatment and were otherwise treated exactly the same as the experimental group. A researcher-made grammar test was used to estimate whether presenting grammar exercises via text messages has any impact on language learners’ grammar learning. The results demonstrated that there was a significant difference (p<0.05) in the grammar learning of the participants who practiced grammar points through text messages and those who did not. The researchers also interviewed various stakeholders, comprising ten students, five parents, the teacher, and the school principal. A qualitative content analysis was carried out to find themes relevant to the stakeholders’ beliefs about making use of text messages for learning grammar. The findings suggest that text messages can be useful for learning grammar points, since they engage learners’ interest and encourage them to study more in order to text the correct answers when they are outside their classrooms.

This paper begins by documenting general usage of the Internet as a tool for delivery of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) courses. It then goes on to illustrate how a number of specific internet-based classroom activities might be integrated onto EAP courses in order to equip non-native speakers with the main skills that they are likely to need when following an academic course at a British university.

We have developed an English pronunciation learning system which estimates the intelligibility of Japanese learners' speech and ranks their errors from the viewpoint of improving their intelligibility to native speakers. Error diagnosis is particularly important in self-study since students tend to spend time on aspects of pronunciation that do not noticeably affect intelligibility. As a preliminary experiment, the speech of seven Japanese students was scored from 1 (hardly intelligible) to 5 (perfectly intelligible) by a linguistic expert. We also computed their error rates for each skill. We found that each intelligibility level is characterized by its distribution of error rates. Thus, we modeled each intelligibility level in accordance with its error rate. Error priority was calculated by comparing students' error rate distributions with that of the corresponding model for each intelligibility level. As non-native speech is acoustically broader than the speech of native speakers, we developed an acoustic model to perform automatic error detection using speech data obtained from Japanese students. As for supra-segmental error detection, we categorized errors frequently made by Japanese students and developed a separate acoustic model for that type of error detection. Pronunciation learning using this system involves two phases. In the first phase, students experience virtual conversation through video clips. They receive an error profile based on pronunciation errors detected during the conversation. Using the profile, students are able to grasp characteristic tendencies in their pronunciation errors which in effect lower their intelligibility. In the second phase, students practise correcting their individual errors using words and short phrases. They then receive information regarding the errors detected during this round of practice and instructions for correcting the errors. We have begun using this system in a CALL class at Kyoto University. We have evaluated system performance through the use of questionnaires and analysis of speech data logged in the server, and will present our findings in this paper.

Technological advances have revolutionised methods of both teaching and testing in languages, and practitioners have eagerly embraced the opportunity to provide more innovative ways of doing this. The unique features offered by technology make it increasingly possible to test for a wide range of language skills required for a specific purpose. With the increasing need to test for English language proficiency and the importance placed on this facility, technology is being utilised to address issues of practicality, speed and efficiency. However, such advantages should not be embraced without due consideration for the essential qualities of any test; validity and reliability. With the inevitable shift towards computer-based testing, certain areas need special consideration. While computer-based tests can provide constructive diagnostic information to complement the language learning process, they should be used more selectively in other contexts, for example in high-stakes tests, examples of which are International English Language Testing System (IELTS) and Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). These tests provide an assessment of English language proficiency, a key component of university admissions criteria. This paper examines a number of issues related to the design and application of computer-based tests, with particular reference to construct validity, computer familiarity and practicality. It is recommended that in the short term at least, test-takers be offered the choice of test medium in the interests of fairness and equity.