It has been over 10 years since the first mention in a medical journal about cocoa and chocolate as potential sources of antioxidants for health. During this time, cocoa has been found to improve antioxidant status, reduce inflammation and correlate with reduced heart disease risk; with these results, and its popularity, it has received wide coverage in the press. However, after 10 years of research, what is known about the potential health benefits of cocoa and what are the important next steps in understanding this decadent source of antioxidants?

In order to establish firm evidence for the health effects of dietary polyphenol consumption, it is essential to have quantitative information regarding their dietary intake. The usefulness of the current methods, which rely mainly on the assessment of polyphenol intake using food records and food composition tables, is limited as they fail to assess total intake accurately. This review highlights the problems associated with such methods with regard to polyphenol-intake predictions. We suggest that the development of biological biomarkers, measured in both blood and urine, are essential for making accurate estimates of polyphenol intake. However, the relationship between dietary intakes and nutritional biomarkers are often highly complex. This review identifies the criteria that must be considered in the development of such biomarkers. In addition, we provide an assessment of the limited number of potential biomarkers of polyphenol intake currently available.

Diet–gene interactions have become the focus of much research in recent years. However, little is known about UK dietitians' involvement, confidence and knowledge in genetics and diet–gene interactions. A validated postal questionnaire sent to a randomly selected sample of 600 dietitians in the UK resulted in 390 responses (65 %). Most dietitians had no involvement in eleven activities relating to genetics and diet–gene interactions and lacked confidence in undertaking such activities. However, a significant positive association was found between involvement and confidence for all activities tested (P < 0·0001). A mean knowledge score of 41 % (sd 19) indicated generally low levels of knowledge in genetics and diet–gene interactions. Knowledge scores were higher for those who reported discussing the genetic basis of disease or discussing how diet–gene interactions affected risk (P < 0·05). For the majority of activities, dietitians who reported higher confidence had higher knowledge scores. Given the importance of interactions between genetics and nutrition in preventing and managing disease, this study identifies a need to increase the involvement, confidence and knowledge in genetics and diet–gene interactions of dietitians in the UK.

Minor components from dietary oils can modulate the atherogenic response of the TAG-rich lipoproteins (TRL) in which they are transported. In the present study we investigated the influence of TRL isolated from man after the intake of oleic acid-rich oils with different minor component compositions on VLDL secretion by rat primary hepatocytes. TRL were isolated from nine men after the intake of meals enriched with high-oleic sunflower oil (HOSO) or virgin olive oil (VOO) or VOO enriched with minor components (EVO). TRL were incubated with rat primary hepatocytes and the lipid accumulation was analysed in the cells and the secreted VLDL. The expression of genes for proteins related to hepatic lipid metabolism and VLDL production was also measured. Incubation of hepatocytes with TRL derived from HOSO as compared to VOO led to lower intracellular lipid accumulation and VLDL production despite higher mRNA expression for diacylglycerol-acyltransferase, microsomal TAG transfer protein, apoB and PPARα. When TRL derived from EVO were used there were no changes in VLDL secretion. These results suggest that incorporation of minor components from dietary high-oleic oils into TRL modulates the effect of these atherogenic particles on VLDL secretion.

Effects of n-acetyl cysteine (NAC), s-ethyl cysteine (SEC), s-propyl cysteine (SPC) and cysteine on enzymes participating in biosynthesis of TAG and cholesterol, and antioxidant protection in liver from mice consuming a high-saturated fat diet was examined. The high-fat diet provided 70 % fat energy, in which saturated fat was 55 % of total fat. NAC, SEC, SPC or cysteine, each agent at 1 g/l, was directly added into the drinking water as a supplement for 4 weeks. Results showed high saturated fat significantly increased hepatic TAG and total cholesterol contents (P < 0·05) via enhancing the activity and mRNA expression of malic enzyme, fatty acid synthase and 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase (P < 0·05). The intake of NAC, SEC or SPC significantly decreased TAG and total cholesterol levels (P < 0·05) via lowering the activity and mRNA expression of these three lipogenic-related enzymes (P < 0·05). NAC, SEC or SPC treatment also significantly suppressed high saturated fat-induced hepatic mRNA expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP)-1c and SREBP-2 (P < 0·05). High saturated fat decreased hepatic content of glutathione, and the activity of catalase and glutathione peroxidase (P < 0·05). The intake of NAC, SEC or SPC significantly increased hepatic glutathione content (P < 0·05), restored the activity and mRNA expression of glutathione peroxidase, and alleviated the high saturated fat-induced oxidative stress (P < 0·05). These results support that NAC, SEC and SPC are potent agents for affecting hepatic biosynthesis of TAG and cholesterol, and protecting liver against high saturated fat-associated oxidative damage.

Hyperuricaemia is one of the components of metabolic syndrome. Both oxidative stress and hyperinsulinism are important variables in the genesis of this syndrome and have a close association with uric acid (UA). We evaluated the effect of an oral glucose challenge on UA concentrations. The study included 656 persons aged 18 to 65 years. Glycaemia, insulin, UA and plasma proteins were measured at baseline and 120 min after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). The baseline sample also included measurements of total cholesterol, triacylglycerol (TAG) and HDL-cholesterol. Insulin resistance was calculated with the homeostasis model assessment. UA levels were significantly lower after the OGTT (281·93 (sd 92·19) v. 267·48 (sd 90·40) μmol/l; P < 0·0001). Subjects with a drop in UA concentrations >40·86 μmol/l (>75th percentile) had higher plasma TAG levels (P = 0·0001), baseline insulin (P = 0·02) and greater insulin resistance (P = 0·034). Women with a difference in plasma concentrations of UA above the 75th percentile had higher baseline insulin levels (P = 0·019), concentration of plasma TAG (P = 0·0001) and a greater insulin resistance index (P = 0·029), whereas the only significant difference in men was the level of TAG. Multiple regression analysis showed that the basal TAG levels, insulin at 120 min, glycaemia at 120 min and waist:hip ratio significantly predicted the variance in the UA difference (r2 0·077). Levels of UA were significantly lower after the OGTT and the individuals with the greatest decrease in UA levels are those who have greater insulin resistance and higher TAG levels.

The objective of this study was to evaluate potential anti-atherogenic properties of hen eggs enriched naturally with conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) isomers (cis-9, trans-11 and trans-10, cis-12). Eighteen apoE and LDL receptor double-knockout mice (apoE/LDLR− / − ), at the age of 4 months with pre-established atherosclerosis, were randomly assigned to three experimental groups (n 6) and fed AIN-93G-based diets for the next 2 months. The experimental diets were: AIN-93G+ CLA-free egg-yolk powder (control); AIN-93G+ CLA-free egg-yolk powder +0·1 % CLA (CLA-supplemented eggs); and AIN-93G+ CLA-enriched egg-yolk powder, providing 0·1 % CLA (CLA-enriched eggs). For assessment of anti-atherogenic properties of CLA-enriched or CLA-supplemented eggs the following criteria were used: (1) serum lipid profile; (2) development of atherosclerosis; and (3) composition of atherosclerotic plaque. CLA-enriched eggs, compared with CLA-supplemented eggs, reduced significantly (P < 0·05) total plasma cholesterol in the mice. At the same time, both CLA-supplemented eggs and CLA-enriched eggs tended to decrease the size of atherosclerotic plaque in aortic roots of mice. Most importantly, atherosclerotic plaques of mice fed CLA-enriched eggs showed significantly (P < 0·05) reduced number of atherogenic macrophages and increased area occupied by smooth muscle cells in atherosclerotic lesions. In conclusion, CLA-enriched eggs exerted an anti-inflammatory effect more effectively than CLA-supplemented eggs. This anti-inflammatory effect can be considered their major functional claim that warrants further exploitation.

This study investigated the effects of β-carotene and canthaxanthin on lipid peroxidation and antioxidative enzyme activities in rats fed a high-cholesterol, high-fat diet. Wistar rats were divided into six groups. Negative control group (group NC) received a high-fat (150 g/kg) diet; cholesterol control group (group CC) received a high-cholesterol (10 g/kg), high-fat diet. The other four groups were fed a high-cholesterol, high-fat diet supplemented with crystal β-carotene (group BC), β-carotene beadlet (group BB), canthaxanthin beadlet (group CX) or α-tocopherol (group AT). Blood and livers were collected for analysis after 6 weeks of feeding. Group BB had significantly lower hepatic thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) and conjugated diene concentrations, whereas group CX had a significantly lower plasma TBARS concentration than did group CC. In erythrocytes, glutathione peroxidase activities were significantly greater in groups BC, BB and CX than in group CC. Moreover, compared with group CC, catalase activities were significantly greater in groups BB and CX, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity was significantly greater in group BB. In livers, SOD activities were significantly greater in groups BC, BB and CX, and glutathione reductase activities were significantly greater in groups BB and CX than in group CC. Compared with group CC, hepatic retinol and α-tocopherol concentrations were significantly greater in groups BC, BB and CX, whereas plasma and hepatic cholesterol concentrations were significantly lower in group BC. These findings suggest that β-carotene and canthaxanthin altered the pro-oxidation and antioxidation balance and suppressed cholesterol-induced oxidative stress via modulation of antioxidant system and cholesterol metabolism.

Asian plantain (Plantago asiatica) essential oil (PAEO) contains multiple bioactive compounds, but its potential effects on lipid metabolism have not been examined. PAEO was found to be mostly composed of oxygenated monoterpenes, with linalool as the major component (82·5 %, w/w), measured using GC–MS. Incubation of 0–200 μg PAEO/ml with HepG2 cells for 24 h resulted in no significant toxicity. Incubation with 0·2 mg PAEO/ml altered the expression of LDL receptor (+83 %; P < 0·05) and 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase ( − 37 %; P < 0·05), as assessed using RT-PCR. LDL oxidation was markedly inhibited by PAEO treatment due to the prevalence of linalool compounds in PAEO. Oral administration of PAEO for 3 weeks in C57BL/6 mice significantly reduced plasma total cholesterol and TAG concentrations by 29 and 46 %, respectively. The mRNA (+58 %; P < 0·05), but not protein, levels of the LDL receptor were significantly higher, whereas both mRNA and protein levels of HMG-CoA reductase were significantly lower ( − 46 and − 11 %, respectively; P < 0·05) in the liver of PAEO-fed than of control mice. The mRNA levels of CYP7A1 were marginally reduced in HepG2 cells, but not in mouse liver after PAEO treatment. Thus, PAEO may have hypocholesterolaemic effects by altering the expression of HMG-CoA reductase. Reduced TAG and oxidised LDL may provide additional cardiovascular protective benefits.

Adiponectin is discussed to regulate energy balance and insulin sensitivity. Several studies indicated an association of fasting adiponectin with parameters of the metabolic syndrome. We investigated postprandial adiponectin release and its relation to traits of the metabolic syndrome. Serum adiponectin concentration after an oral glucose tolerance test and after ingestion of a standardised mixed, fat-containing meal in 110 male non-diabetic subjects was assessed. Fasting and postprandial adiponectin and the decrease of adiponectin were correlated with anthropometric and metabolic parameters. Subjects were genotyped for adiponectin − 11 388 G/A promoter single nucleotide polymorphism. Adiponectin slightly decreased after both test meals. A significant decrease was attained 5 and 6 h after the lipid load and 2 h after the glucose load. Particularly, the mixed meal postprandial adiponectin showed stronger correlations with most traits of the metabolic syndrome than fasting adiponectin: postprandial adiponectin with HDL (r 0·30) v. fasting adiponectin with HDL (r 0·23); with postprandial insulin (area under the curve): r − 0·20 v. r − 0·16; with fasting insulin: r 0·10 v. r 0·14; with BMI: r − 0·23 v. r − 0·20; with waist: r − 0·18 v. − 0·16; with systolic blood pressure: r − 0·14 v. r − 0·12; with diastolic blood pressure: r − 0·18 v. r − 0·15. In multivariate analysis, postprandial TAG were the only independent predictor of adiponectin. There was no significant association of adiponectin, NEFA and TAG with − 11 388 G/A adiponectin promoter polymorphism. Our findings favour the interpretation that postprandial adiponectin has the strongest and independent associations to postprandial TAG metabolism.

Probiotics are considered to have beneficial effects on the immune system. An association between the composition of microflora and allergies has been demonstrated and modulation of microflora of infants by probiotics might reduce the risk of allergies. To investigate immune effects of probiotics administered early after birth two animal models were used: a mouse model for respiratory allergy; a rat model for experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Administration of the probiotic Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS) started during lactation and allergy or autoimmunity were induced at an adult age. Results were compared with similar studies in rats and mice that were exposed from an adult age. Early administration of LcS significantly increased lymphocytes in the lungs of female mice and eosinophils in the lungs of male mice. LcS had no effects on ovalbumin-specific serum IgE levels and on ovalbumin-specific cytokine production by spleen cells. In adult mice, LcS enhanced ovalbumin-specific cytokine production by the spleen, whereas other parameters were not affected. Early administration of LcS to rats significantly increased the duration of clinical symptoms of EAE. This was also demonstrated previously in adult rats exposed to LcS. Timing of administration of LcS induced divergent effects on respiratory allergy and only early administration of LcS exacerbated lung inflammation. In the EAE model, LcS stimulated autoimmunity independent of the timing of administration. Our data show that immune effects of probiotics do not necessarily induce beneficial effects. It is therefore important that, in the evaluation of probiotics, efficacy and safety should be demonstrated.

To determine the effect of feeding formula containing long-chain PUFA (LCP) on immune function, healthy term infants were randomised at age 2 weeks to either a standard term formula (Formula; n 14) or the same formula supplemented with the LCP 20 : 4n-6 and 22 : 6n-3 (Formula+LCP; n 16). Peripheral blood was collected at 2 and 6 weeks to measure immune cell response (the rate of [3H]thymidine uptake and cytokine production after stimulation with phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)). Compared with cells from infants receiving only human milk (HM), the rate of [3H]thymidine uptake in response to PHA, but not IL-2 production, was lower for Formula+LCP infants (P < 0·05). Compared with HM-fed infants, Formula-fed infants (but not Formula+LCP infants) produced more TNF-α (unstimulated) and had a fewer CD3+CD44+ cells before stimulation and fewer CD11c+ cells post-stimulation (P < 0·05). However, compared with Formula-fed infants, the Formula+LCP infants had an immune cell distribution (higher percentage CD3+CD44+ and CD4+CD28+ cells) and cytokine profile (lower production of TNF-α post-stimulation) that did not differ from HM infants. Additionally, it was found that feeding infants formula during the first 10 d of life influenced immune function. These infants had a higher percentage of CD3+, CD4+CD28+, and lower percentage of CD14+ cells and produced more TNF-α and interferon-γ after PHA stimulation than HM-fed infants (P < 0·05). These results demonstrate that early diet influences both the presence of specific cell types and function of infant blood immune cells. Since many diseases have a strong immunological component, these immune changes may be of physiological importance to the developing infant.

Two rumen protozoa vaccine formulations containing either whole fixed Entodinium or mixed rumen protozoa cells were tested on Merino sheep with the aim of decreasing the number and/or activity of protozoa in the rumen. Negative control (no antigen) and positive control (Tetrahymena corlissi antigens) treatments were also included in the experiment. Blood and saliva were sampled to measure the specific immune response. Protozoal numbers in the rumen were monitored by microscopic counts. Vaccination with protozoal formulations resulted in the presence of specific IgG in plasma and saliva, but saliva titres were low. Titres after secondary vaccination were higher (P < 0·05) than after primary vaccination. There was a moderate (r2 0·556) relationship (P < 0·05) between plasma and saliva titres for the rumen protozoal vaccine formulations. Rumen protozoa were not decreased (P>0·05) by the vaccination and there was also no difference (P>0·05) between treatments in rumen fluid ammonia-N concentration or wool growth. In vitro studies investigated the binding ability of the antibodies and estimated the amount of antibody required to reduce cell numbers in the rumen. The studies showed that the antibodies did bind to and reduced protozoa numbers, but the amount of antibody generated by vaccination was not enough to produce results in an in vivo system. It is suggested that the vaccine could be improved if specific protozoal antigens are determined and isolated and that improved understanding of the actions of protozoa antibodies in rumen fluid and the relationships between levels of antibodies and numbers of protozoa in the rumen is needed.

Epidemiological studies have shown an inverse association between dietary intake of whole grains and the risk of chronic disease. This may be related to the ability to mediate a prebiotic modulation of gut microbiota. However, no studies have been conducted on the microbiota modulatory capability of whole-grain (WG) cereals. In the present study, the impact of WG wheat on the human intestinal microbiota compared to wheat bran (WB) was determined. A double-blind, randomised, crossover study was carried out in thirty-one volunteers who were randomised into two groups and consumed daily 48 g breakfast cereals, either WG or WB, in two 3-week study periods, separated by a 2-week washout period. Numbers of faecal bifidobacteria and lactobacilli (the target genera for prebiotic intake), were significantly higher upon WG ingestion compared with WB. Ingestion of both breakfast cereals resulted in a significant increase in ferulic acid concentrations in blood but no discernible difference in faeces or urine. No significant differences in faecal SCFA, fasting blood glucose, insulin, total cholesterol (TC), TAG or HDL-cholesterol were observed upon ingestion of WG compared with WB. However, a significant reduction in TC was observed in volunteers in the top quartile of TC concentrations upon ingestion of either cereal. No adverse intestinal symptoms were reported and WB ingestion increased stool frequency. Daily consumption of WG wheat exerted a pronounced prebiotic effect on the human gut microbiota composition. This prebiotic activity may contribute towards the beneficial physiological effects of WG wheat.

The objective of the present study was to assess the impact of age and dentition status on masticatory function. A three-arm case–control study was performed. Group 1 (n 14) was composed of young fully dentate subjects (age 35·6 ± 10·6 years), group 2 (n 14) of aged fully dentate subjects (age 68·8 ± 7·0 years) and group 3 (n 14) of aged full denture wearers (age 68·1 ± 7·2 years). Mastication adaptation was assessed in the course of chewing groundnuts and carrots to swallowing threshold. Particle size distribution of the chewed food, electromyographic (EMG) activity of the masseter and temporalis muscles during chewing, and resting and stimulated whole saliva rates were measured. Aged dentate subjects used significantly more chewing strokes to reach swallowing threshold than younger dentate subjects (P < 0·05), with increased particle size reduction, longer chewing sequence duration (P < 0·05) and greater total EMG activity (P < 0·05) for both groundnuts and carrots. In addition, aged denture wearers made significantly more chewing strokes than aged dentate subjects (P < 0·001) to reach swallowing threshold for groundnuts. Particle size reduction at time of swallowing was significantly poorer for denture wearers than for their aged dentate counterparts, despite an increase in chewing strokes, sequence duration and EMG activity per sequence. Masticatory function was thus adapted to ageing, but was impaired in denture wearers, who failed to adapt fully to their deficient masticatory apparatus.

Taste acuity declines with age and may be dependent upon Zn status. The aim of the present double-blind, randomised controlled intervention trial has been to determine taste acuity in response to Zn supplementation (placebo, or 15 or 30 mg Zn/d). Healthy older European adults aged 70–87 years were recruited within Italy (Rome) (n 108) and France (Grenoble) (n 91) to the European Commission-funded Zenith project. A signal detection theory approach was adopted for taste assessment. The data were converted to R indices and analysed by repeated-measures ANOVA controlling for baseline taste acuity as well as serum and erythrocyte Zn. Serum Zn increased post-intervention, indicating compliance with the intervention. Results differed across geographical region. Salt taste acuity was greater in response to Zn (30 mg) than placebo post-intervention among those recruited in Grenoble. There was no apparent change in acuity for sweet, sour or bitter taste in response to Zn. Supplemented Zn may have potential to enhance salt taste acuity in those over the age of 70 years. Further research is required to determine if enhanced salt taste acuity is reflected in the eating experiences of older individuals.

A human study was carried out to investigate whether tomato juice, rich in natural lycopene and fortified with vitamin C, is able to reduce several biomarkers of oxidative stress and inflammation and whether the effect can be attributed to lycopene, vitamin C or any other micronutrient. Following a 2-week depletion phase, volunteers were assigned randomly to ingest either tomato juice with (LC) or without (L) vitamin C fortification for 2 weeks (daily dose 20·6 mg lycopene and 45·5/435 mg vitamin C). Plasma and urine were analysed for carotenoids and vitamin C, lipid status, antioxidant capacity, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and 8-epi-PGF2α, protein carbonyls, cytokines IL-1β and TNFα and C-reactive protein (CRP). The consumption of tomato juice led to a reduction in total cholesterol levels (L: 157·6 v. 153·2 mg/dl, P = 0·008; LC: 153·4 v. 147·4 mg/dl, P = 0·002) and that of CRP (L: 315·6 v. 262·3 μg/l, P = 0·017; LC: 319·2 v. 247·1 μg/l, P = 0·001) in both groups. The vitamin C-fortified juice slightly raised the antioxidant capacity in urine and decreased TBARS in plasma and urine. All other markers were affected to a lesser extent or remained unchanged. Cholesterol reduction was correlated with lycopene uptake (P = 0·003), whereas the other effects could not be related with particular micronutrients. Any beneficial effects of tomato consumption for human health cannot be attributed only to lycopene and, as the additional supplementation with ascorbic acid indicates, a variety of antioxidants might be needed to optimize protection against chronic diseases.

Dietary intake of 18: 2n-6 and 18: 3n-3 may affect endogenous production and incorporation of n-3 long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) from fish oils (FO). This double-blinded controlled 2 × 2-factorial 8-week intervention investigates the effects of high and low 18: 2n-6 intake in combination with FO-supplementation on tissue fatty acid composition. Healthy young men (n 64) were randomized to capsules with FO or olive oil (control) (4·4 (2·0–5·6) ml/d) and to either sunflower oil and margarine (S/B) or rapeseed oil and a butter spread (R/K) to provide a high or a low 18: 2n-6 intake. Diet was measured by 4-d weighed dietary records at baseline, during and 8 weeks after the intervention and tissue incorporation as fatty acid composition of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). The fat intervention gave a mean difference in the 18: 2n-6 intake of 7·3 g/d (95 % CI 4·6, 10·0) and a similar 18: 3n-3 intake in the groups. The R/K groups had a 0·2 % fatty acid (FA%) (95 % CI 0·0, 0·4, P = 0·02) higher content of 22: 5n-3 in the PBMC, a tendency of slightly higher 20: 5n-3 (P = 0·06), but no more 22: 6n-3 (P = 0·83) than the S/B groups. FO effectively raised the PBMC content of all n-3 LCPUFA (P < 0·001). The fat intervention did not markedly influence the effect of FO; the mean PBMC content of n-3 LCPUFA was 10·3 (sem 0·3) FA% in the FO+S/B group and 10·6 (sem 0·2) FA% in the FO+R/K group. In conclusion, increasing the 18: 2n-6 intake did not have any pronounced effect on incorporation of n-3 LCPUFA in PBMC, either alone or with simultaneous FO supplementation.

Public health policy in the UK related to nutrition and bone health has been shaped by reports from the Department of Health (DH), Food Standards Agency and WHO. Dietary reference values (DRV) for a number of nutrients were published in 1991 by the DH Committee on Medical Aspects of Food and Nutrition Policy. The subsequent DH report on nutrition and bone health in 1998 concentrated particularly on Ca and vitamin D, but also briefly addressed the effect of body weight, alcohol and other nutrients. Although this reviewed more recent evidence relating to the effect of higher intakes of Ca and vitamin D from longitudinal and interventional studies, no changes were made to the existing DRV. The Food Standards Agency published a report from their Expert Group on Vitamins and Minerals in 2003, which recommended safe upper limits for eight vitamins and minerals, with guidance provided on a further twenty-two nutrients, where there was less information on safety. The WHO report on diet, nutrition and the prevention of chronic diseases in 2003 addressed the prevention of osteoporosis, making recommendations on Ca, vitamin D, Na, fruit and vegetables, alcohol and body weight. The present paper examines current views on what constitutes an adequate dietary Ca intake and optimal vitamin D status, the DRV for vitamin D in subjects with little or no exposure to sunlight and the results of recent epidemiological studies on the relationship between fracture risk and body weight, alcohol intake and the consumption of other nutrients.

In children, but not adults with cystic fibrosis (CF), associations between essential fatty acids (FA) and bone mass have been reported. Low bone mineral density (BMD) is common in these patients. Previously we found a normal annual increase of BMD, suggesting a potential for attaining normal bone mass. The aim of the present study was to investigate phospholipid FA pattern in relation to bone in young adult men with CF compared with healthy controls. Fourteen male patients with CF were compared with forty-two healthy controls, using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry for total bone, lumbar spine and femur and peripheral quantitative computerised tomography for tibia and radius. A questionnaire concerning physical activity and nutrition was used. FA in serum phospholipids were measured using capillary GLC. CF patients did not differ in physical activity and anthropometry from controls. There were no differences in bone parameters between the two groups, but patients chronically colonised with Pseudomonas aeruginosa had lower BMD than non-colonised patients. The trabecular BMD in the tibia differed between patients and controls, but not after adjustment for age and weight. The endosteal circumference of the radius was significantly associated with serum phospholipid concentration of DHA and inversely with the n-6:n-3 FA ratio in CF patients but not in controls. The present study showed that young physically active adult males with classical CF obtained similar bone mass as controls, although influenced by pseudomonas colonisation. The association between DHA and long bone endosteal circumference suggested a later peak bone mass in those with CF compared with controls.