To assess the knowledge, attitudes and practices related to salt consumption among adults in rural and urban North India.

Data for the study were obtained from a community-based cross-sectional survey using an interviewer-administered questionnaire and 24 h urine samples.

Data collection was conducted during March–October 2012 in rural Haryana and urban Delhi in North India.

Adults (n 1635) aged ≥20 years (701 in rural Haryana; 934 in urban Delhi).

Twenty-four per cent of rural and 40·5 % of urban participants knew that a high-salt diet causes high blood pressure. Nearly one-fifth of both rural and urban participants knew that there should be a maximum daily limit for consumption of salt. In rural and urban areas, 46·6 and 45·1 %, respectively, perceived it important to reduce the salt content of their diet; however, only 3·7 and 10·2 %, respectively, reported taking some actions. Participants reported they were consuming ‘too little salt’, ‘just the right amount of salt’ or ‘too much salt’, but their corresponding mean (95 % CI) actual salt consumption (g/d; as measured by 24 h urinary Na excretion) was higher, especially among rural participants (rural: 9·2 (8·13, 10·22), 8·5 (8·19, 8·77) or 8·4 (7·72, 8·99); urban: 5·6 (4·67, 6·57), 5·7 (5·32, 6·01) or 4·6 (4·10, 5·14), respectively).

Knowledge about the deleterious health impact of excess salt consumption is low in this population. Tailored public education for salt reduction is warranted with a particular focus on rural residents.

To evaluate daily eating frequency (main meals and snacks) in relation to weight status in children aged 3–9 years, representative of the Portuguese population.

Cross-sectional study. Dietary intake was estimated as the mean of two non-consecutive days of food diaries, followed by face-to-face interviews. Weight and height were measured by trained observers. Eating occasions (EO) were defined by the children’s caregiver; an EO was considered separate if the time of consumption was different from other EO and it provided at least 209 kJ (50 kcal). Main meals defined as ‘breakfast’, ‘lunch’ and ‘dinner’ could be selected only once per day. The remaining EO were considered snacks. The association between eating frequency and overweight/obesity was evaluated through logistic regressions weighted for the population distribution.

National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey of the Portuguese population, 2015–2016.

Portuguese children aged 3–9 years with complete dietary data and anthropometric measurements (n 517).

Overall, the number of daily EO ranged from 3·5 to 11, and on average children had 5·7 daily EO. After adjustment for child’s sex, age and total energy intake, and considering only plausible energy intake reporters, having < 3 snacks/d was positively associated with being overweight/obese (OR = 1·98; 95 % CI 1·00, 3·90), compared with having ≥ 3 snacks/d.

Lower daily frequency of EO was associated with increased odds of being overweight or obese in children. A higher eating frequency, maintaining the same energy intake, seems to contribute to a healthy body weight in children.

The present study aimed to evaluate the association of frequency of consuming takeaway meals and meals out with diet quality of UK adolescents.

The Diet Quality Index for Adolescents (DQI-A) tool was used to assess diet quality, where adolescents’ food intake was based on 4d diary records obtained from the UK cross-sectional National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) rolling programme Years 1–6. Models included confounders.

The DQI-A relies on three components, specifically diet quality, diversity and equilibrium, which reflect the degree of adherence of an adolescent’s diet with food-based dietary guidelines.

British (n 2045) adolescents aged 11–18 years.

Mean diet quality score for all adolescents was 20·4 % (overall DQI-A score range: −33 to 100 %). After adjusting for age, gender and equivalised household income, DQI-A% score was higher for low and moderate takeaway consumers by 7·4 % (95 % CI 5·5, 9·2; P<0·01) and 3·5 % (95 % CI 1·9, 5·1; P<0·01), respectively, v. frequent consumers. Significant differences were also observed between low, moderate and frequent takeaway consumers among all DQI-A components and sub-components (P<0·05), except for the diet adequacy sub-component (DAx). Results for frequent consumption of meals out were similar but attenuated and not statistically significant for individual components before or after adjusting for confounders.

Frequent consumption of takeaway meals may have a negative impact on adolescents’ diet quality and therefore policies to reduce the intake of takeaways should be considered in this age group.

Pregnancy in adolescence is a global health issue, especially in developing countries. Additionally, the recommended gestational weight gain (GWG) is usually based on pre-pregnancy BMI and that might be complex for pregnant teens. The study objective was to compare three different methods of BMI classification and suggest the best way of determining pre-pregnancy BMI and monitoring GWG among pregnant adolescents.

Pre-pregnancy weight, weight at first prenatal visit, height, sociodemographic, reproductive and perinatal data were collected. Weighted kappa and McNemar statistics were used to assess agreement between the classification methods.

Prof. Dr Jose Aristodemo Pinotti Women’s Hospital, University of Campinas, Brazil.

Primiparas younger than 19 years of age and with less than 20 weeks of gestational age (n 150).

BMI of the primiparas was determined according to the WHO recommendation for adult women, the Child Growth Standards (CGS) and their gynaecological age (GA). The WHO and GA measurements presented a strong agreement with each other (κw=0·99; 95 % CI 0·97, 1·00), but did not agree with the CGS classification (κw=0·62; 95 % CI 0·50, 0·74 by WHO; κw=0·62; 95 % CI 0·51, 0·74 by GA). Also, inadequate GWG was observed in 72·2 % of cases and was correlated with a higher rate of caesarean birth.

BMI classification according to the CGS differed from WHO and GA. However, CGS and WHO agreed on perinatal outcomes. We recommend using BMI classification by WHO to assess pregnant adolescents, since it is easily applied and better known among health professionals.

To describe continuity over time in reports of valuing sustainable diet practices and investigate relationships between values, household meal behaviours and dietary intake.

Observational study. Participant ratings of how important it is for food to be produced as organic, not processed, locally grown and not GM were categorized to represent whether they valued (very/somewhat important) or did not value (a little/not at all important) each practice. Diet quality markers (e.g. fruit servings) were based on an FFQ.

Mailed and online surveys.

Young adults (n 1620; 58 % female, mean age 31 (sd 1·6) years) who were participating in Project EAT (Eating and Activity among Teens and Young Adults) and responded to follow-up surveys in 2003–2004 and 2015–2016.

One-third (36·1 %) of participants reported valuing <2 practices at both assessments; 11·1 and 34·5 % respectively reported valuing ≥2 practices in 2003–2004 only and in 2015–2016 only; 18·3 % reported valuing ≥2 practices at both assessments. Regression models including demographics, parental status and vegetarian status showed that valuing ≥2 practices was associated with preparation of meals with vegetables at least a few times/week, less frequent purchase of family meals from fast-food restaurants, and higher diet quality in 2015–2016. For example, those who valued ≥2 practices consumed nearly one full vegetable serving more than other young adults on an average day and part of this difference was specifically associated with intake of dark green and red/orange vegetables.

Addressing the sustainability of food choices as part of public health messaging may be relevant for many young adults.

To identify most commonly consumed foods by adolescents contributing to percentage of total energy, added sugars, SFA, Na and total gram intake per day.

Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2011–2014.

NHANES is a cross-sectional study nationally representative of the US population.

One 24 h dietary recall was used to assess dietary intake of 3156 adolescents aged 10–19 years. What We Eat in America food category classification system was used for all foods consumed. Food sources of energy, added sugars, SFA, Na and total gram amount consumed were sample-weighted and ranked based on percentage contribution to intake of total amount.

Three-highest ranked food subgroup sources of total energy consumed were: sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB; 7·8 %); sweet bakery products (6·9 %); mixed dishes – pizza (6·6 %). Highest ranked food sources of total gram amount consumed were: plain water (33·1 %); SSB (15·8 %); milk (7·2 %). Three highest ranked food sources of total Na were: mixed dishes – pizza (8·7 %); mixed dishes – Mexican (6·7 %); cured meats/poultry (6·6 %). Three highest ranked food sources of SFA were: mixed dishes – pizza (9·1 %); sweet bakery products (8·3 %); mixed dishes – Mexican (7·9 %). Three highest ranked food sources of added sugars were: SSB (42·1 %); sweet bakery products (12·1 %); coffee and tea (7·6 %).

Identifying current food sources of percentage energy, nutrients to limit and total gram amount consumed among US adolescents is critical for designing strategies to help them meet nutrient recommendations within energy needs.

Dietary patterns have been pointed out as useful diet quality indicators, but evidence about their relationship to metabolic phenotypes is still scarce. Thus, the present study aimed to verify the relationship between dietary patterns and metabolic phenotypes in Brazilian adults.

Cross-sectional study. A food consumption frequency questionnaire assessed food consumption profiles. Metabolic phenotypes were defined based on the criteria of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey: overweight or normal weight and metabolically healthy (MHOW and MHNW) or unhealthy (MUOW and MUNW). Dietary patterns were established through exploratory factor analysis and principal component analysis. The associations were tested using multinomial logistic regression.

Viçosa, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Individuals (n 896) aged 20–59 years of both sexes, selected using probabilistic sampling.

Three dietary patterns were identified: Unhealthy pattern (alcoholic beverages, oils and fats, condiments, soda and juice, sugars and sweets, snacks, and meat and derivatives), Traditional pattern (culinary preparations, beans, milk and dairy products, and coffee and tea) and Healthy pattern (vegetables and fruits, whole grains, chicken and fish, and skimmed milk). Unhealthy pattern was positively associated with the MHOW and MUOW phenotypes in the fourth quartile (OR = 1·84; 95 % CI 1·06, 3·22) and in the third (OR = 1·94; 95 % CI 1·11, 3·39) and fourth (OR = 2·56; 95 % CI 1·41, 4·64) quartiles of consumption, respectively. Healthy pattern was also associated with these phenotypes.

Both the pattern comprising energy-dense foods and the healthier pattern were associated with overweight phenotypes among Brazilian adults.

Although breast-feeding is the recommended way to feed an infant, a safe and nutritious substitute for breast milk is needed for infants who are not breast-fed. Labelling information on infant formula (IF) products aims to enable caregivers (who have already made the decision to use IF) to make informed product choices. Yet, there is limited data on how caregivers understand and use the information provided on IF packaging. The present study aimed to increase understanding of caregivers’ interpretation and use of the following label elements on IF products: the nutrition information statement; the ingredients list; and statements around nutrition content and health claims.

Qualitative data were obtained from twenty-one focus group discussions. To enable comparison of findings by education level and ethnicity, focus group participants were homogeneous with respect to educational attainment (Australian groups) or ethnic background (New Zealand groups).

Focus groups were conducted in metropolitan and regional areas of Australia and New Zealand.

Caregivers (n 136) of formula-fed infants.

Framework analysis revealed that caregivers commonly experience difficulties when using labelling information, particularly when trying to identify and understand key differences between products. Moreover, comparing products can be a complex task regardless of education level and ethnicity.

Further research is required to determine the most effective strategies for meeting information needs of caregivers and allowing easier identification and understanding of product differences. This is especially important given that the vast range of IF products across large price ranges in the market adds to the complexity of purchase decisions.

To present evidence on the burden and outcomes of co-morbidities among severely malnourished (SAM) children admitted to outpatient therapeutic programme (OTP) facilities in the conflict setting of Borno, Nigeria.

Retrospective medical chart review.

Facility-based study.

Children aged 6–59 months with SAM enrolled in OTP between June and November 2016 whose medical records were analysed. Only pneumonia and diarrhoea were examined due to data limitations. Stata software was used for descriptive, multivariate and survival analyses.

Records of 396 children with median age of 15 months were identified and analysed from the date of enrolment to exit from OTP. Mean length of stay in OTP was 61d, with co-infected SAM children having shorter stay (P=0·006). Of the total, 148 (37·4 %) had at least one co-morbidity (pneumonia or diarrhoea), of which thirty-nine (26·4 %) had both. Cumulative rate of mortality during follow-up time was 9·5 (95 % CI 6·0, 15·1) per 10 000 child-days; SAM children with co-morbidities were ten times more likely to die than those without (hazard ratio=10·2; 95 % CI 3·4, 31·0). In multivariable analysis, co-morbidity (P=0·01), oedema (P=0·003), dehydration (P=0·02) and weight on admission (P=0·01) were associated with mortality. Both recovery and defaulter rates (57·8 and 36·1 %, respectively) did not meet SPHERE standards.

Children with SAM and co-morbidities are less likely to survive, presenting a significant barrier in improving child survival. The findings call for integrated OTP models that incorporate clinical algorithms and ensure prompt referral for SAM children with co-morbidity.

The quality of labelled food product databases underlying popular diet applications (apps) with barcode scanners was investigated.

Product identification rates for the scanned products and the availability and accuracy of nutrient values were calculated.

One hundred food products were selected from the two largest supermarket chains in the Netherlands. Using the barcode scanners of the selected apps, the products were scanned and the results recorded as food diary entries. The collected data were exported.

Seven diet apps with barcode scanner and food recording feature were selected from the Google Play and Apple app stores.

Energy values were available for 99 % of the scanned products, of which on average 79 % deviated not more than 5 % from the true value. MyFitnessPal provided values for sixteen nutrients, while Virtuagym Food and Yazio provided values for only four nutrients. MyFitnessPal also showed the largest percentage of correctly identified products (i.e. 96 %) and SparkPeople the smallest (i.e. 5 %). The accuracy of the provided nutrient values varied greatly between apps and nutrients.

While energy was the most consistently and accurately reported value, the availability and accuracy of other values varied greatly between apps. Whereas popular diet apps with barcode scanners might be valuable tools for dietary assessments on the product and energy level, they appear less suitable for assessments on the nutrient level. The presence of user-generated database entries implies that the availability of food products might vary depending on the size and diversity of an app’s user base.

Interventions to reduce adolescents’ non-core food intake (i.e. foods high in fat and sugar) could target specific people or specific environments, but the relative importance of environmental contexts v. individual characteristics is unknown.

Cross-sectional.

Data from 4d food diaries in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) 2008–2012 were analysed. NDNS food items were classified as ‘non-core’ based on fat and sugar cut-off points per 100g of food. Linear multilevel models investigated associations between ‘where’ (home, school, etc.) and ‘with whom’ (parents, friends, etc.) eating contexts and non-core food energy (kcal) per eating occasion (EO), adjusting for variables at the EO (e.g. time of day) and adolescent level (e.g. gender).

Adolescents (n 884) aged 11–18 years.

Only 11 % of variation in non-core energy intake was attributed to differences between adolescents. In adjusted models, non-core food intake was 151 % higher (ratio; 95 % CI) in EO at ‘Eateries’ (2·51; 2·14, 2·95) and 88 % higher at ‘School’ (1·88; 1·65, 2·13) compared with ‘Home’. EO with ‘Friends’ (1·16; CI 1·03, 1·31) and ‘Family & friends’ (1·21; 1·07, 1·37) contained 16–21 % more non-core food compared with eating ‘Alone’. At the individual level, total energy intake and BMI, but not social class, gender or age, were weakly associated with more non-core energy intake.

Regardless of individual characteristics, adolescents’ non-core food consumption was higher outside the home, especially at eateries. Targeting specific eating contexts, not individuals, may contribute to more effective public health interventions.

We investigated the effect of maternal preconception fasting plasma total homocysteine (tHcy) on psychological problems in children aged 6 years from normal pregnancies.

A longitudinal study was carried out from preconception, throughout each trimester of pregnancy, until 6 years of age in the offspring. Fasting blood samples at 2–10 weeks preconception and non-fasting samples at birth were collected. Parents completed the Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) and teachers the Inattention-Overactivity with Aggression (IOWA) scale for the 6-year-old children.

Elevated tHcy during pregnancy has been associated with several adverse outcomes and with neurodevelopmental impairment in the offspring.

The initial sample consisted of 139 healthy non-pregnant women who were planning on becoming pregnant. Eighty-one mother–child dyads were followed from preconception until 6 years of age.

After adjusting for covariables, multiple linear regression models showed that higher preconception tHcy was associated with higher scores in internalizing dimension (β=0·289; P=0.028), specifically in withdrawn behaviour (β=0·349; P=0·009), anxiety/depression (β=0·303; P=0·019) and social problems (β=0·372; P=0·009). Aggressive behaviour in the school setting was higher in children whose mothers had higher preconception tHcy (β=0·351; P=0·014).

Moderately elevated preconception tHcy may increase the risk of psychological problems in offspring during childhood. These findings add to the evidence that maternal nutritional status, even before being pregnant, can affect later offspring health and may be important to consider when developing future public health policy.

To describe snacking characteristics and patterns in children and examine associations with diet quality and BMI.

Children’s weight and height were measured. Participants/adult proxies completed multiple 24 h dietary recalls. Snack occasions were self-identified. Snack patterns were derived for each sample using exploratory factor analysis. Associations of snacking characteristics and patterns with Healthy Eating Index-2010 (HEI-2010) score and BMI were examined using multivariable linear regression models.

Childhood Obesity Prevention and Treatment Research (COPTR) Consortium, USA: NET-Works, GROW, GOALS and IMPACT studies.

Predominantly low-income, racial/ethnic minorities: NET-Works (n 534, 2–4-year-olds); GROW (n 610, 3–5-year-olds); GOALS (n 241, 7–11-year-olds); IMPACT (n 360, 10–13-year-olds).

Two snack patterns were derived for three studies: a meal-like pattern and a beverage pattern. The IMPACT study had a similar meal-like pattern and a dairy/grains pattern. A positive association was observed between meal-like pattern adherence and HEI-2010 score (P for trend < 0⋅01) and snack occasion frequency and HEI-2010 score (β coefficient (95 % CI): NET-Works, 0⋅14 (0⋅04, 0⋅23); GROW, 0⋅12 (0⋅02, 0⋅21)) among younger children. A preference for snacking while using a screen was inversely associated with HEI-2010 score in all studies except IMPACT (β coefficient (95 % CI): NET-Works, −3⋅15 (−5⋅37, −0⋅92); GROW, −2⋅44 (−4⋅27, −0⋅61); GOALS, −5⋅80 (−8⋅74, −2⋅86)). Associations with BMI were almost all null.

Meal-like and beverage patterns described most children’s snack intake, although patterns for non-Hispanic Blacks or adolescents may differ. Diets of 2–5-year-olds may benefit from frequent meal-like pattern snack consumption and diets of all children may benefit from decreasing screen use during eating occasions.

Breast-feeding is an important determinant of health of mothers and their offspring. The present study aimed to compare breast-feeding rates across Europe disaggregated by maternal education and establish what proportion achieves at least 50 % exclusive breast-feeding (EBF) at 6 months.

Secondary analysis of national or sub-national studies’ breast-feeding data for EU Member States plus Norway and Iceland, published in 2006–2016. Nineteen EU Member States plus Norway reported rates of EBF and any breast-feeding disaggregated by maternal education, of which only thirteen could be matched to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Mothers and their infants aged 0–12 months.

Data on EBF rates at 6 and 4 months were found in only four and six countries, respectively. At 6 months, EBF rates of 49 % in Slovakia and 44 % in Hungary were closest to WHO’s target of at least 50 % EBF. At 4 months, mothers with high education level in Denmark, the Netherlands and Germany had the highest EBF rates (71, 52 and 50 %, respectively). Mothers with low education level were less likely to initiate breast-feeding and cessation occurred early. The inequality gap ranged from 63 % in Irish mothers to no gap or very low levels of inequality in Poland, Sweden and Norway.

More mothers with high, compared with low, education initiate breast-feeding and practise EBF for longer. More European policies should be targeted to protect, support and promote breast-feeding, especially among mothers with only mandatory education.

To explore the associations of absolute and relative measures of exposure to food retailers with dietary patterns, using simpler and more complex measures.

Cross-sectional survey.

Urban regions in Belgium, France, Hungary, the Netherlands and the UK.

European adults (n 4942). Supermarkets and local food shops were classified as ‘food retailers providing healthier options’; fast-food/takeaway restaurants, cafés/bars and convenience/liquor stores as ‘food retailers providing less healthy options’. Simpler exposure measures used were density of healthy and density of less healthy food retailers. More complex exposure measures used were: spatial access (combination of density and proximity) to healthy and less healthy food retailers; density of healthier food retailers relative to all food retailers; and a ratio of spatial access scores to healthier and less healthy food retailers. Outcome measures were a healthy or less healthy dietary pattern derived from a principal component analysis (based on consumption of fruits, vegetables, fish, fast foods, sweets and sweetened beverages).

Only the highest density of less healthy food retailers was significantly associated with the less healthy dietary pattern (β = −129·6; 95 % CI −224·3, −34·8). None of the other absolute density measures nor any of the relative measures of exposures were associated with dietary patterns.

More complex measures of exposure to food retailers did not produce stronger associations with dietary patterns. We had some indication that absolute and relative measures of exposure assess different aspects of the food environment. However, given the lack of significant findings, this needs to be further explored.

To describe low-income parents’ and caregivers’ perceptions of the Cooking Matters Mobile Application (CM App) meal planning and preparation features.

Explanatory mixed-methods design where data were gathered via online surveys based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the Theory of Reasoned Action, followed by telephone interviews.

CM App, a mobile phone-based resource geared towards low-income parents and caregivers of young children (pregnancy/infant to age 5 years) for meal planning and preparation, with features based on skills taught in the Cooking Matters course: recipes, shopping list and meal planning.

Low-income parents and caregivers (survey participants, n 461; interview participants, n 20) who had downloaded the CM App to their smartphone and agreed to participate in the current evaluation.

Attitudes and self-efficacy related to CM App’s subject matter and functions (meal planning; recipe use; creating and using a shopping list) were measured via surveys and interviews. Mean (sd) responses were positive towards ‘meal planning’ and ‘shopping and cooking’ (4·17 (0·63) and 3·49 (0·86) on a 5-point Likert scale, respectively). Interviewees described meal planning and preparation behaviours as intrinsic, based on habit, and influenced by family preference and food costs. Early adopters of the CM App may already be engaged in and/or are motivated to engage in the targeted health behaviours.

Users may benefit most from incorporating into their routines new ways to prepare easy, cost-efficient, healthy meals at home that their families will enjoy.

Dietary intake of toddlers has been of growing interest due to its long-term consequences on health. However, previous works have focused largely on Caucasian populations and less is known about Asian toddlers. We aimed to validate a semi-quantitative FFQ designed to assess dietary intakes of 18-month-old toddlers in a multi-ethnic Asian cohort.

An FFQ of ninety-four food items, identified based on food records of 12-month-old GUSTO children, the Southampton Women’s Survey 12 Month Infancy Questionnaire and inputs from paediatric dietitians, was filled out two weeks before the 18th-month clinic visit. As the reference method, two non-consecutive 24 h recalls (24HR) were administered during and two weeks after the clinic visit. FFQ nutrient intakes were validated against averaged 24HR nutrient intakes, using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test, Spearman’s rank-order correlation, cross-classification and the Bland–Altman method.

Data from the Singapore Growing Up in Singapore Towards Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO) mother–offspring birth cohort.

Toddlers (n 188) aged 18 months.

Absolute nutrient intakes from the FFQ were significantly higher than from the 24HR, except for vitamin A. After energy adjustments, r range was 0·56–0·78 (macronutrients) and 0·40–0·54 (micronutrients). De-attenuation increased r to 0·58–0·96 and 0·45–0·65 for macro- and micronutrients, respectively. Of participants, ≥82·4 % (macronutrients) and ≥77·7 % (micronutrients) were classified in the same and adjacent quartiles. No clear systematic increase in intake differences with increasing mean intake was observed in Bland–Altman plots.

This FFQ can provide a satisfactory assessment of toddlers’ energy-adjusted nutrient intakes, as well as accurately rank them in a group.

To determine whether neighbourhood supermarket and convenience store availability and broader built environment context are associated with food purchasing behaviour in a national population.

We used observational data to perform a cross-sectional study of food purchases for US households in 2010. We used three-level mixed-effect regression models to determine whether the associations between the number of neighbourhood supermarkets and convenience stores and the self-reported annual household expenditures for fruits and vegetables were affected by regional destination accessibility, neighbourhood destination diversity, availability of neighbourhood destinations and neighbourhood street connectivity.

Metropolitan statistical areas (n 378) in the USA.

Households (n 22 448).

When we controlled for broader built environment context, there was no significant association between availability of neighbourhood supermarkets and expenditures on fruits and vegetables; instead, we observed an inverse association between the number of convenience stores and expenditures for fruits (P = 0·001). The broader built environment context was associated with food purchase, although the magnitude was small: (i) higher regional destination accessibility was associated with higher expenditures for fruits (P < 0·001); (ii) higher neighbourhood destination diversity was associated with lower expenditures for vegetables (P = 0·002); and (iii) higher neighbourhood street connectivity was associated with higher expenditures for fruits (P < 0·001).

The broader built environment factors contributed to understanding how people use neighbourhood food stores. However, there was only a small relationship between the broader environment context and fruit and vegetable expenditures. Policy interventions that focus exclusively on increasing the availability of neighbourhood supermarkets likely will not promote fruit and vegetable consumption.

To examine snacking patterns, food sources and nutrient profiles of snacks in low- and middle-income Chilean children and adolescents.

Cross-sectional. Dietary data were collected via 24 h food recalls. We determined the proportion of snackers, snacks per day and energy from top food and beverage groups consumed. We compared the nutrient profile (energy, sodium, total sugars and saturated fat) of snacks v. meals.

South-east region of Chile.

Children and adolescents from two cohorts: the Food Environment Chilean Cohort (n 958, 4–6 years old) and the Growth and Obesity Cohort Study (n 752, 12–14 years old).

With a mean of 2·30 (se 0·03) snacks consumed daily, 95·2 % of children and 89·9 % of adolescents reported at least one snacking event. Snacks contributed on average 1506 kJ/d (360 kcal/d) in snacking children and 2218 kJ/d (530 kcal/d) in snacking adolescents (29·0 and 27·4 % daily energy contribution, respectively). Grain-based desserts, salty snacks, other sweets and desserts, dairy foods and cereal-based foods contributed the most energy from snacks in the overall sample. For meals, cereal-based foods, dairy beverages, meat and meat substitutes, oils and fats, and fruits and vegetables were the top energy contributors.

Widespread snacking among Chilean youth provides over a quarter of their daily energy and includes foods generally considered high in energy, saturated fat, sodium and/or total sugars. Future research should explore whether snacking behaviours change as the result of Chile’s national regulations on food marketing, labelling and school environments.

To examine whether psychosocial health mediates the association between food insecurity and grade point average (GPA) among college and university students.

Data for the present study are from a longitudinal cohort study. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the proposed mediation hypothesis. Food insecurity was measured using the US Department of Agriculture’s Six-Item Short Form. Psychosocial health was operationalized as a latent factor with three indicators: depression, anxiety and hope. Validated scales were used to measure each indicator. GPA was self-reported.

Seven colleges and universities in Georgia, USA.

Students aged 18–25 years were recruited via email and surveyed every four months over a two-year period (analytic n 2377).

Approximately 29 % of students were food insecure. In the final SEM, food insecurity was associated (standardized β, se) with poorer psychosocial health (0·22, 0·03, P<0·0001) and poorer psychosocial health was associated with a lower GPA (−0·21, 0·03, P<0·0001). The indirect effect of food security status on GPA, as mediated by psychosocial health, was significant (−0·05, 0·01, P<0·0001) and accounted for 73 % of the total effect. After accounting for psychosocial health, the direct effect of food security status on GPA was not significant (−0·02, 0·02, P=0·43).

Psychosocial health may be an important mechanism through which food insecurity affects academic performance among college and university students. Multicomponent interventions that address immediate food security needs as well as co-occurring mental health and academic concerns are needed to ensure student success.