The chapter determines one set of obligations of the human right to internet access using the idea of rights as social guarantees against standard threats. These obligations regard duties of provision to protect against digital poverty. The chapter first provides the statistical background on the global digital divide. Digital poverty has several causes. People lack financial means to afford (1) digital devices and (2) data services. (3) Digital infrastructure is missing especially in the poorest and most remote regions. Hundreds of millions of people everywhere lack (4) basic digital skills. The chapter sets out a global standard concerning all four dimensions of connectivity that public authorities must guarantee. It thereby specifies the first meaning of ‘free’ internet access as ‘free for those unable to afford it’. It also distinguishes between the general content and minimal core obligations of the human right to free internet access. Minimal core obligations are those all states currently can and must fulfil. The general content specifies the full set of duties that states must progressively realise if they are currently unable to do so.

This chapter provides an introduction to the Cambridge Handbook of Bilingual Phonetics and Phonology, and emphasizes the interdisciplinarity of the scholarship included in the Handbook, which contributes to the diversity of approaches, to theory-building, and to the collaborative connections that are enhancing the field. The abstracts of each of the thirty-five chapters are also included and are followed by concluding remarks providing a roadmap for the future of research on bilingual phonetics and phonology.

The concluding chapter identifies three broad contributions of the book: explaining the choices made by states about language; offering explicit historical institutionalist accounts of the politics of language by centering the analysis on the state and using notions of legacies, critical juncture, path dependency, layering, conversion, and drift, among others; and, the further development, leveraging, and testing of the concept of state traditions as a theoretical and analytical focus for explaining language policy. The chapter also synthesizes the important points coming out of the case studies drawn from a multiplicity of contexts, namely that processes of state-making and state-building are central in forging the state traditions that steer linguistic policies towards specific developmental paths; that the specific nature and configuration of political institutions within a state, not only at founding but also as it evolves over time when adjusting to changing societal dynamics and circumstances, heavily condition the choices states make about language; and that political ideas and norms are central to state traditions since they tend to structure both political and policy development by conditioning the choices of political actors, pushing societies into specific paths of linguistic choices at the expense of others.

The introduction sets forth the theoretical framework of the book by defining the two main lenses through which the material is viewed: scholarly masculinity and clerical masculinity. In doing so, it clarifies their relationship to other types of masculinities and highlights the role of animals in gender formation. This chapter also situates the book in its broader historiographical context, within both Byzantine and Western medieval Studies.

This chapter documents our experiences of pivoting research on sexual and gender minority youth towards an online protocol using digital methods. Digital diaries presented an opportunity to conduct virtual longitudinal qualitative research on how youth describe their experiences of living through the COVID-19 pandemic in Vancouver, Canada. Our digital diary process, supplemented with remote interviews, allowed us to capture shifting health-related patterns and trends, establish capacity to identify and explore unanticipated areas of inquiry, and evaluate participants’ impressions of the method itself. While going digital allowed us to overcome some immediate constraints to participation, it also introduced new uncertainties, including equity concerns and issues around consistent, secure and safe digital access for research participants. We describe how features of young people’s lives remain important factors associated with their ability to participate in digital and remote research. We offer solutions to the challenges and conclude that to counteract the inequities arising from the shift to digital methods, we need flexible, adaptive and population-tailored digital and remote approaches to data collection.

The global incidence of cardiac arrest (CA) outside of the hospital setting is roughly 100/100,000 person/years, but there is substantial variation between countries and continents.[1] A coronary artery occlusion is the most common cause, but CA may also be caused by a primary arrhythmia, other cardiac diseases, or be secondary to a noncardiac cause such as hypoxia or asphyxia;[2] opiate drug overdose may account for several cases, especially in the United States. Survival rates have increased during the last few decades, and approximate 10% in Europe [3] and the United States.[4] A cardiac arrest leads to an immediate interruption of perfusion of all body organs including the brain (no flow). Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) will partly restore circulation (low flow), and rapid institution of bystander CPR is the most important modifiable factor for survival.[5] During the period of “no” and “low” flow until the restoration of spontaneous circulation (ROSC), the brain and all other organs are exposed to global ischemia.

In the long sweep of human history, certain key innovations were so dramatic in their impacts that they changed our world forever. What do we know from historical studies and archaeology of the topics chosen for five key chapters of this book?

Neuroprognostication, the focus of this book, is crucial toward the management of the highly complex patient in the neurological intensive care unit (Neuro ICU). It is of primary importance to understand the nature of the disease and the potential for recovery. Informed prognostication by neurologically trained physicians has been hypothesized to be a significant reason for the improved outcomes of neurological patients managed in a Neuro ICU versus general medical ICUs.[1]

Decisions surrounding withdrawal of life-sustaining therapies (WLST) are highly dependent on prognosis. In a retrospective study of Neuro ICU patients who were terminally extubated, family members surveyed most frequently cited quality of life, prognosis, and the patient’s previously known wishes as “very important” in their decision to remove life-sustaining therapy.[2]

Evidence-based prognostication in the Neuro ICU is difficult, and may be biased by the effect of WLST on patient mortality.

The third chapter covers the span of Roman oratory, from its first (lost) beginnings to the importance of Greek models, to its full flourishing in the work of Cicero. It emphasises throughout how central to Roman aristocratic life the art of good speaking was, how competitive an art form it was, and that the people were sophisticated auditors. Cicero necessarily dominates the discussion, but we try to capture the style of a few others, including Cato the Elder.

This introductory chapter situates the book within the field of comparative politics, noting its distinction from debates that focused on the language planning process, on social mobilization to secure language rights, or on linguistic justice. Instead, it highlights state traditions that produce language regimes, which themselves have a powerful influence on language policy choices. The introduction provides two diagrams that frame the theoretical conception and identifies how each chapter contribution deepens and refines the framework.

The adoption of inflation targets in the U.K, with the Monetary Policy Committee given instrument independence in 1997, is often presented as the answer to the assignment problem: the MPC was made responsible for the single objective of price stability, to be attained via its deployment of its single instrument, the policy rate. This chapter uses this perspective to examine the evolution of the workings of monetary policy and the MPC over its first twenty-five years, how the Bank and the MPC, came across additional possible objectives and searched for additional possible instruments. implying the need for some recasting of the role of the MPC and the way in which it operates.

Although the 13 United States courts of appeals are the final word on 99 percent of all federal cases, there is no detailed account of how these courts operate. How do judges decide which decisions are binding precedents and which are not? Who decides whether appeals are argued orally? What administrative structures do these courts have? The answers to these and hundreds of other questions are largely unknown, not only to lawyers and legal academics but also to many within the judiciary itself. Written and Unwritten is the first book to provide an inside look at how these courts operate. An unprecedented contribution to the field of judicial administration, the book collects the differing local rules and internal procedures of each court of appeals. In-depth interviews of the chief judges of all 13 circuits and surveys of all clerks of court reveal previously undisclosed practices and customs.

This chapter discusses and translates the Kitāb al-Umma or Ṣaḥīfat al-Madīna, also known as the ‘Umma-document’ or the ‘Constitution of Medina,’ exploring its place in modern historiography and in particular its controversial possible implications for the study of the emergence of Islam as a distinct religious tradition. The Kitāb al-Umma is one of the oldest documentary sources of Islamic history, and its historicity is almost universally accepted in modern scholarship. The Kitāb belongs to the period shortly after the migration (hijra) of the Prophet to Medina, specifically to c. 1/622, when the Prophet concluded a series of treaties between the Emigrants (muhājirūn), the Helpers (anṣār), and the main Arab and Jewish tribes of Medina, to establish one Umma, ‘a community of believers.’

Once the theory is specified and an operationalization has been chosen for the nodes and links, the next step is to acquire the data. This chapter goes deep into issues that arise when designing surveys to collect data. Although this is not the only method of data collection, it is one that illuminates issues that pertain to all others. This chapter covers the practical question of how to use surveys to elicit network information. The advice leans heavily on a well-formulated theory.

This chapter provides additional justifications for the human right to free internet access. It shows that today internet access is practically indispensable for having adequate opportunities for the exercise and enjoyment of socio-economic and cultural human rights. Examples from around the globe provide evidence for the internet’s practical systemic indispensability for human rights to, for example, education, health care, housing (adequate standard of living), finding work, and participation in cultural life. Specific attention is paid to the differing ways in which internet access matters in developed countries (where internet access is already widespread and public services generally available) versus developing societies (in which internet access is often lacking and universal public service provision is precarious. In developed countries, internet access greatly increases opportunities to use socio-economic human rights, thereby putting those who involuntarily remain offline at risk of social, economic, or cultural exclusion. By contrast, in developing countries internet access is sometimes the only way for at least some realisation of people’s socio-economic human rights.