The organic farming concept developed in the period prior to 1940 and was pioneered by Sir Albert Howard (1873–1947). Howard, born and educated in England, directed agricultural research centers in India (1905–1931) before permanently returning to England. His years of agricultural research experiences and observations gradually evolved into a philosophy and concept of organic farming that he espoused in several books. Howard's thinking on soil fertility and the need to effectively recycle waste materials, including sewage sludge, onto farmland was reinforced by F.H. King's book, Farmers of Forty Centuries. Howard developed a system of composting that became widely adopted. Howard's concept of soil fertility centered on building soil humus with an emphasis on how soil life was connected to the health of crops, livestock, and mankind. Howard argued that crop and animal health was a birthright and that the correct method of dealing with a pathogen was not to destroy the pathogen but to see what could be learned from it or to ‘make use of it for tuning up agricultural practice’. The system of agriculture advocated by Howard was coined ‘organic’ by Walter Northbourne to refer to a system ‘having a complex but necessary interrelationship of parts, similar to that in living things’. Lady Eve Balfour compared organic and non-organic farming and helped to popularize organic farming with the publication of The Living Soil. Jerome Rodale, a publisher and an early convert to organic farming, was instrumental in the diffusion and popularization of organic concepts in the US. Both Howard and Rodale saw organic and non-organic agriculture as a conflict between two different visions of what agriculture should become as they engaged in a war of words with the agricultural establishment. A productive dialogue failed to occur between the organic community and traditional agricultural scientists for several decades. Organic agriculture gained significant recognition and attention in 1980, marked by the USDA publication Report and Recommendations on Organic Farming. The passage of the Federal Organic Foods Production Act in 1990 began the era of accommodation for organic farming in the USA, followed by another milestone with official labeling as USDA Certified Organic in 2002. Organic agriculture will likely continue to evolve in response to ongoing social, environmental, and philosophical concerns of the organic movement.

The majority of cropland in the rain-fed region of the North Central District of Oklahoma in the US is seeded with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) and most of it is in continuous wheat production. When annual crops are grown in monocultures, weed species and disease agents may become established and expensive to control. For many years prior to 1996, federal policy provided incentives for District producers to grow wheat and disincentives to diversify. In 1996, the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform (FAIR) Act (Freedom to Farm Act) was instituted, followed by the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act (FSRIA) in 2002. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of FAIR and FSRIA programs on crop diversity in the North Central District of Oklahoma. The economics of three systems, monoculture continuous winter wheat, continuous soybean (Glycine max) and a soybean–winter wheat–soybean rotation, were compared using cash market prices (CASH), CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments (a yield-dependent subsidy) of the FAIR Act of 1996, and CASH plus the effective loan deficiency payments of the FSRIA of 2002. We found that the loan deficiency payment structure associated with FAIR provided a non-market incentive that favored soybean. However, under provisions of the 2002 FSRIA, the incentive for soybean was adjusted, resulting in greater expected returns for continuous wheat. Due to erratic weather, soybean may not be a good alternative for the region. Research is needed to identify crops that will fit in a rotation with wheat.

Decisions on land-use sustainability are particularly critical in fragile semi-arid regions of the world, especially those involving the social factor: people and communities. Typical of such an area is the Middle East region, especially Jordan which is beset by climatic constraints. New land-use alternatives were introduced by the Jordan Arid Zone Productivity Project (JAZPP) to improve land productivity in the arid to semi-arid (transitional Badia) land in Jordan. These alternatives were verified within experimental stations under controlled conditions. Dissemination of these findings would be successful if they suit the needs and resources of farmers. Therefore, verification of the success of these techniques under a wide range of biophysical and socio-economic conditions was necessary to judge their suitability to the target area. Various interventions were implemented on 14 sites that represent different biophysical and socio-economic conditions over the study area. With close monitoring and follow-up, successful and encouraging results were reported during the first season, even with lower rainfall than average, suggesting that these techniques were biophysically suitable for the target area. During the second season, maintenance and guarding were assigned to the farmers. Seven out of the 14 sites failed for various reasons: multiownership regime, reluctance of farmers to adopt new land use and insufficient protection and/or guarding measures. The study highlighted the importance of the farmers' comments and discussion of their specific problems and needs. This helped to improve these interventions to suit the farmers' requirements and may be important in facilitating widespread adoption and sustainability of these new land-use alternatives in the Jordanian Badia as well as in other areas of similar environment.

Interactions between environmental conditions and management practices can significantly affect soil function. Soil quality assessments may improve our understanding of how soils interact with the hydrosphere and atmosphere. This information can then be used to develop management practices that improve the capacity of the soil to perform its various functions and help identify physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes to quantify the present state of a soil and detect changes resulting from management. In protocols established by the Great Plains cropping system network, sampling and testing procedures were selected to identify physical, chemical, and biological soil attributes responsive to management that may serve as useful indicators in assessing the effects of management on the soil resource. Eight existing long-term studies from throughout the Great Plains in the central USA were used to make these assessments because, (1) many years are required for certain soil properties to change measurably; (2) annual weather causes variation in system performance; and (3) the soil pools of interest are spatially variable. This paper includes detailed descriptions of the treatments and sites, and both long-term and short-term (1999–2002) data on precipitation, temperature, and yields for each location.

Can banded herbicide be eliminated in ridge-tilled soybean (Glycine max)? The effects of banded herbicide, rotary hoeing and cultivation on weed populations and soybean yield in a ridge-tillage system were tested on three farms in Iowa, USA in 1989 and 1990. In 1989, plots either had no herbicide or had herbicide banded in the row at planting in mid-May; all plots received two rotary hoeings and two cultivations. In 1990, treatments were banded herbicide with no rotary hoeing, banded herbicide with one rotary hoeing, and no herbicide with one or two rotary hoeings; all plots received two or three cultivations. In both years, over all weed species [primarily giant foxtail (Setaria faberi), Pennsylvania smartweed (Polygonum pensylvanicum) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus)], seedling emergence was highest in late May and early June, with few seedlings emerging after mid-June. Weed populations were highest in May and June, after which rotary hoeing and cultivation reduced weed numbers in all plots. There were no consistent differences among treatments in weed numbers in early August for the 2 years. In both years, there was no significant difference in soybean yield among treatments. Within-farm mean yields ranged from 2.26 to 3.01 Mg ha−1 among farms in 1989 and from 2.07 to 2.93 Mg ha−1 among farms in 1990. Ridge-tillage without herbicide was generally equivalent to ridge-tillage with banded herbicide, with respect to total number of weeds and number of broad-leaved weeds remaining in August after tillage, and to soybean yield.

The extension of agroecology requires an alternative extension pedagogy. Agroecology is more than merely the promotion of new technologies or practices, but rather a fresh understanding of how to optimize the configuration of biological and technological components of farming systems informed by ecological principles. This necessarily requires a shift in roles among growers and extensionists so that they can actively participate in networks of social learning. Agro-environmental partnerships have emerged in California as the primary strategy for extending alternative, agroecological knowledge in conventional agriculture. Partnerships are an intentional, multi-year relationship among at least growers, a growers' organization, and one or more scientists to extend agroecological knowledge and protect natural resources through a field-scale demonstration. Partnerships have been particularly successful in perennial crop farming systems, and have played critical roles in helping California's almond and pear growers to reduce organophosphate use by over 75%. This study provides a cross partnership comparison of grower participation in partnerships and proposes a five-part typology to rank this.

Cost-effective, laborsaving, and environmentally sound weed management practices are needed for sustainable vegetable production. Organic production, in particular, precludes the use of synthetic herbicides and requires that organic farmers utilize practices that reduce harmful environmental impact. Although polyethylene film mulch is used extensively in vegetable production in Florida, its use has a number of drawbacks, among which is the susceptibility of opaque polyethylene mulch to penetration by yellow and purple nutsedge. Appreciable labor and disposal/environmental costs are associated with its removal. A durable mulch material that would effectively control nutsedge and other weeds but with no associated environmental and disposal costs is highly desirable. Hydramulch, a paper-like material applied as a slurry consisting of cotton waste, newsprint, gypsum and a proprietary adhesive, was tested as a biodegradable alternative to polyethylene mulch during the spring of 2003. Experiments were conducted in southeastern and north-central Florida to compare the effects of three hydramulch formulations, polyethylene mulch and a no mulch control on soil temperature, soil moisture and weed infestation. Soil temperature under hydramulch was 1–4°C lower than that under polyethylene. In the absence of rain, the use of hydramulch resulted in soil moisture levels that were 1–4% lower than with polyethylene mulch. Higher soil moisture with hydramulch than polyethylene was coincident with rainfall. Hydramulch remained intact on most beds and suppressed broadleaf weeds and grasses, particularly at the north-central site where the mulch was applied at a greater thickness. However, purple nutsedge readily penetrated hydramulch. Therefore, hydramulch may be applicable for use for the suppression of broadleaf weeds and grasses at sites with little or no nutsedge pressure in fall or in crops for which cooler soils are desirable or crops that are rainfed or overhead irrigated.

Organic farmers throughout Austria were asked in 1999 if, once the first agri-environmental program (ÖPUL) ends, they intended to commit themselves to a further five-year period of organic farming. The study presented here addresses those farmers who expressed in the survey the intention to end their participation in organic farming under ÖPUL, or who were undecided at that time. The aim was to compare and analyze the intended behavior with actual behavior. The research was based on material from, and analyses of, the 1999 survey and the survey conducted in 2002. Additional information regarding the reasons for abandoning (or continuing) organic farming and the decision-making process itself was collected through a series of telephone interviews in 2004. The comparison revealed a connection between actual behavior and the intentions expressed in the 1999 survey. However, there were no clear differences in terms of the reasons given in 1999 for potentially discontinuing with organic farming between those farms that remained organic and those that reverted to conventional farming methods. There were differences between those reasons given in the 1999 survey for potentially leaving organic agriculture and the reasons that determined the actual decision, as cited in telephone interviews in 2004. In the 1999 survey, economic issues were the main reasons for potentially ceasing to farm organically. When it came to the actual decision, problems concerning organic guidelines and inspections were more prominent. The environmental attitudes and the social embedding of the farmers within organic agriculture played a decisive role on those enterprises that chose to continue farming organically. The analysis indicates that the presence of a successor is also a stabilizing factor for organic farming.

Information is needed on the role of cover crops as a weed control alternative due to the high adoption of conservation tillage in soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] production. Field experiments were conducted from fall 1994 through fall 1997 in Alabama to evaluate three winter cereal cover crops in a high-residue conservation-tillage, soybean production system. Black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb.), rye (Secale cereale L.), and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) were evaluated for their weed-suppressive characteristics compared to a winter fallow system. Three herbicide systems were utilized: no herbicide, a mixture of two pre-emergence (PRE) herbicides, or PRE plus post-emergence (POST) herbicides. The PRE system contained pendimethalin plus metribuzin. The PRE plus POST system contained pendimethalin plus a prepackage of metribuzin and chlorimuron ethyl applied PRE, followed by an additional chlorimuron ethyl POST application. No cover crop was effective in controlling weeds without a herbicide. However, when black oat or rye was utilized with only PRE herbicides, weed control was similar to the PRE plus POST input system. Thus, herbicide reductions may be attained by utilizing cover crops that provide weed suppression. Rye and black oat provided more effective weed control in the PRE only herbicide input system than wheat in conservation-tillage soybean. The winter fallow, PRE plus POST herbicide input system yielded significantly less soybean one out of three years when compared to systems that included a winter cover crop.

Agricultural systems produce both detrimental and beneficial effects on soil quality (SQ). We compared soil physical properties of long-term conventional (CON) and alternative (ALT) cropping systems near Akron, Colorado (CO); Brookings, South Dakota (SD); Bushland, Texas (TX); Fargo, North Dakota (ND); Mandan (ND); Mead, Nebraska (NE); Sidney, Montana (MT); and Swift Current, Saskatchewan (SK), Canada. Objectives were to quantify the changes in soil physical attributes in cropping systems and assess the potential of individual soil attributes as sensitive indicators of change in SQ. Soil samples were collected three times per year from each treatment at each site for one rotation cycle (4 years at Brookings and Mead). Water infiltration rates were measured. Soil bulk density (BD) and gravimetric water were measured at 0–7.5, 7.5–15, and 15–30 cm depth increments and water-filled pore space ratio (WFPS) was calculated. At six locations, a rotary sieve was used to separate soil (top 5 cm) into six aggregate size groups and calculate mean weight diameter (MWD) of dry aggregates. Under the CON system at Brookings, dry aggregates (>19 mm) abraded into the smallest size class (<0.4 mm) on sieving. In contrast, the large aggregates from the ALT system abraded into size classes between 2 and 6 mm. Dry aggregate size distribution (DASD) shows promise as an indicator of SQ related to susceptibility of soil to wind erosion. Aggregates from CON were least stable in water. Soil C was greater under ALT than CON for both Brookings and Mead. At other locations, MWD of aggregates under continuous crop or no tillage (ALT systems) was greater than MWD under CON. There was no crop system effect on water infiltration rates for locations having the same tillage within cropping system. Tillage resulted in increased, decreased, or unchanged near-surface BD. Because there was significant temporal variation in water infiltration, MWD, and BD, conclusions based on a single point-in-time observation should be avoided. Elevated WFPS at Fargo, Brookings, and Mead may have resulted in anaerobic soil conditions during a portion of the year. Repeated measurements of WFPS or DASD revealed important temporal characteristics of SQ that could be used to judge soil condition as affected by management.

This is a tale, over 500 years in the making, of how a university–community farm collaborative research project turned corn smut into gold.

In organic pasture systems, the balance of soil fertility is maintained by maximizing the cycling of on-farm nutrients. In this study, the effect of fertility management on dry matter yield in organic pasture systems was examined using an unreplicated 25 factorial design. The factors were nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), compost and seaweed extract, each at two levels (with [+] and without [−]). The trials were conducted in 2000 and 2001 at two fields on an organic dairy farm in Nova Scotia, Canada. The pasture mix is predominantly perennial ryegrass, orchardgrass and white clover. The fertility treatments were applied in spring, and forage yield was collected from early-, mid- and late-summer harvests. The analysis revealed the significance of several interaction effects, which varied considerably from harvest to harvest. Both +N and +Compost treatments were associated with increased yield. High levels of P and K already present in the soil either diminished or varied the effects of P and K treatments. Seaweed extract enhanced the effectiveness of N and compost, but reduced yield when used alone. The results suggest that the commonly recommended use of seaweed extract for organic pasture management can be detrimental to biomass production unless sufficient nitrogen is provided. Despite the unusually dry weather in the 2 years, the study demonstrated the applicability of unreplicated two-level factorial experiments in agricultural field studies.

The influence of farm management practices on ground-dwelling natural enemy communities and predation of insects and weed seeds was investigated over the first 2 years of the transition from conventional to organic production. Three transition strategies were selected that differed in their management and input intensities, and were characteristic of pasture/ley systems (low intensity), cash grain systems (intermediate intensity), and vegetable production (high intensity). Beneficial arthropods (insectivores and granivores) were monitored using pitfall (arthropod activity) and quadrat (arthropod density) samples. The frequency of predation on restrained larvae of Galleria mellonella and the species observed feeding were recorded. Weekly removal rates of weed seeds representative of abundant species at our site were monitored over a 3-week period during fall. Management intensity affected the activity and abundance of biological control agents. In year two of the transition, biological control agent densities were higher in the low-intensity treatment than in the other two treatments, but activity of insectivores and granivores was reduced in this treatment relative to the higher intensity systems. The patterns in the abundances of biological control agents may be explained by habitat stability within the different cropping systems. Quadrat samples were strongly correlated with the insectivory index, although pitfall samples were not. Insectivory rates were highest (>80% of G. mellonella larvae) in the low-intensity treatment. Predation patterns over a 17-h period differed substantially among the management treatments, indicating behaviorally distinct insectivore communities. Seed removal was also highest in the low-intensity treatment. We conclude that low-intensity cropping systems are most favorable to the abundance and function of beneficial ground-dwelling arthropod communities (insectivores and granivores) during the transition process.

A green manure (GM) is a crop grown primarily as a nutrient source and soil amendment for subsequent crops. In environments such as Florida, combined use of GM and reduced tillage may improve soil water and nutrient retention and reduce potential groundwater pollution. In the first 3 years of a long-term experiment, use of GM in a reduced-tillage system on a sandy Florida soil benefited the season-long growth of sweet corn (Zea mays L. var. Rugosa) much more than final ear yields. To help understand these patterns, we evaluated response of sweet corn roots when in rotation with GM of sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.; summer) and cahaba white vetch (Vicia sativa L.; winter 2002–2003) and a multi-species mixture of hairy vetch (V. villosa Roth.) and cereal rye (Secale cereale L.; winter 2003–2004). Treatments included sweet corn with combinations of 0 or 133 kg chemical N ha−1 (as NH4NO3) and with or without GM. A highly fertilized treatment (267 kg chemical N ha−1) without GM was also included. Soil cores were sampled from three depths (0–15, 15–30 and 30–60 cm) both between and within corn rows. Data from two experiments showed that use of GM increased sampled corn root length density (RLD) by 44–54%, although only within the upper 15 cm of soil in one of the two experiments. Corn following GM plus 133 kg chemical N ha−1 produced up to 44% greater RLD than corn with 267 kg chemical N ha−1. Sampled RLD decreased with distance away from corn plants (from in-row to between-row positions, and from shallow to deeper depth), with roughly 85–95% of sampled RLD existing in the top 30 cm of soil across all treatments. During the 2004 experiment, we found that broadcast, as opposed to banded (placed along corn row only), chemical N application resulted in more even distribution of corn RLD between in-row and between-row positions during late-season without regard to GM crop. Although GM permitted optimal sweet corn growth with a 50% reduction in chemical N application, ear fill during the final 1–2 weeks before harvest may have been reduced in GM treatments. GM effects on the amount and spatial distribution of sweet corn RLD may help explain these trends. Provision of greater N from GM residues and/or altered distribution of supplementary chemical N and irrigation may be required to achieve greater ear yield benefit from GM.

Soil management and cropping systems have long-term effects on agronomic and environmental functions. This study examined the influence of contrasting management practices on selected soil chemical properties in eight long-term cropping system studies throughout the Great Plains and the western Corn Belt. For each study, soil organic C (SOC), total N (TN), particulate organic matter (POM), inorganic N, electrical conductivity (EC), and soil pH were evaluated at 0–7.5, 7.5–15, and 15–30 cm within conventional (CON) and alternative (ALT) cropping systems for 4 years (1999–2002). Treatment effects were primarily limited to the surface 7.5 cm of soil. No-tillage (NT) and/or elimination of fallow in ALT cropping systems resulted in significantly (P<0.05) greater SOC and TN at 0–7.5 cm within five of the eight study sites [Akron, Colorado (CO); Bushland, Texas (TX); Fargo, North Dakota (ND); Mandan, ND; and Swift Current, Saskatchewan (SK), Canada]. The same pattern was observed with POM, where POM was significantly (P<0.05) greater at four of the eight study sites [Bushland, TX, Mandan, ND, Sidney, Montana (MT), and Swift Current, SK]. No consistent pattern was observed with soil EC and pH due to management, although soil EC explained almost 60% of the variability in soil NO3-N at 0–7.5 cm across all locations and sampling times. In general, chemical soil properties measured in this study consistently exhibited values more conducive to crop production and environmental quality in ALT cropping systems relative to CON cropping systems.

Soil biological quality can affect key soil functions that support food production and environmental quality. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of management and time on soil biological quality in contrasting dryland cropping systems at eight locations in the North American Great Plains. Alternative (ALT) cropping systems were characterized by greater cropping intensity (less fallow), more diverse crop sequences, and/or reduced tillage than conventional (CON) cropping systems. Soil biological properties were assessed at depths of 0–7.5, 7.5–15, and 15–30 cm from 1999 to 2002 up to three times per year. Compared to CON, ALT cropping systems had greater microbial biomass and potentially mineralizable N. ALT cropping systems also had greater water stable aggregates in the surface 7.5 cm, but only at four locations. Total glomalin (TG), an organic fraction produced by fungi associated with aggregate stability, differed only at one location (Mandan), where the ALT cropping system had 27% more TG than the CON cropping system. Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) profiles were highly location dependent, but total extracted FAME tended to be higher in ALT cropping systems. Soil biological properties fluctuated over time at all locations, possibly in response to weather, apparent changes in soil condition at sampling, and the presence or absence of fallow and/or legumes in rotation. Consequently, preplant and post-harvest sampling, when weather and soil conditions are most stable, is recommended for comparison of soil biological properties among management practices. Overall, ALT cropping systems enhanced soil function through: (1) improved retention and cycling of nutrients and (2) maintenance of biodiversity and habitat, implying improved agro-ecosystem performance over time.

Short food supply chains (SFSCs) and civic agriculture are emerging as promising means to support small and medium-sized farms, revitalize rural communities and transform producer/consumer relationships. To find out more about SFSCs and civic agriculture in Maine and to examine factors that promote their success, this study interviewed 31 successful, locally focused Maine farmers and observed many of their market outlets. The study documented the nature and extent of each farm enterprise and each marketing outlet. Farmers were asked to describe their goals, their reasons for success, what they would do differently, and what major problems they had encountered. In the interviews, key factors found to support successful locally focused farming were civic involvement in local communities, production of high-quality products tailored to customer wants and needs, vision and planning pursued in a flexible and adaptive fashion, and personal relationships with customers that foster ongoing mutual education and provide marketing feedback to the farmers. Major challenges revolve around the need for farmland preservation policies, training and financial support for new farmers, working capital for new and experienced farmers, business planning assistance, and lack of infrastructure, such as meat slaughtering and grain milling facilities.

Conventional farmers converting to organics have contributed to most of the rapid expansion of organic farming in recent years. The new organic farmers may differ from their more established colleagues, which may have implications for the development of the organic farming sector and its distinctiveness vis-à-vis conventional production and marketing practices. The aim of this study was to explore Norwegian organic dairy farmers' personal and farm production characteristics, farming goals, conversion motives, and attitudes to organic farming, grouped by year of conversion (three groups). A postal survey was undertaken among organic dairy farmers (n=161). The results show that the newcomers (converted in 2000 or later) were less educated than the early entrants (the so-called ‘old guard’) who converted in 1995 or earlier. The frequency of activities like vegetable growing and poultry farming among the old guard was high. The late-entry organic herds were fed with more concentrates and had a higher milk production intensity, showed a higher incidence of veterinary treatments and less frequent use of alternative medicine than the herds of the two earlier converting groups. For all groups of farmers, the highest ranked farming goals were sustainable and environment-friendly farming and the production of high-quality food. Late entrants more often mentioned goals related to profit and leisure time. On average, the most frequently mentioned motives for conversion were food quality and professional challenges. The old guard was more strongly motivated by food quality and soil fertility/pollution issues than the others, whereas financial reasons (organic payments included) were relatively more important among the newcomers. All groups held very favorable views about the environmental qualities of organic farming methods, albeit with different strengths of beliefs. Even though trends towards more pragmatic and business-oriented farming were found, the majority of the newcomers were fairly committed.

Organic agriculture is regarded as one important approach to agriculture and food production that is environmentally sustainable and can generate several positive impacts to rural society. However, organic agriculture development is still limited in Taiwan and the major reason is lack of economic incentives to farmers. Hence, one approach to link organic agriculture with agro-ecotourism is proposed in this study to maximize the economic benefit of organic agriculture.

Chrshang Township in Taiwan was selected as an example to develop such eco-organic tourism based on organic agriculture. First, five appropriate activities were designed according to the fundamental principles for guiding the development of eco-organic tourism. In addition, the maximum willingness to pay (WTP) method was employed to estimate potential revenues from eco-organic tourism and then the economic value could be compared with that of other economic activities. Under a conservative scenario, the total annual revenue from eco-organic tourism is about NT$421,293,559, which is about 20 times that of the rice production in the study area.

In addition to the direct economic revenues, the following additional benefits can also be found: (1) the linkage can create additional value of organic agriculture; (2) organic agriculture can contribute to service economy and experience economy; (3) people can increase their confidence in organic products through better understanding; (4) a one-step relationship between organic producer and consumer can be established; and (5) local food supply will be connected with demands in the tourism industry. In summary, under a symbiotic relationship, organic agriculture is not only commodities and goods production, it can become one important service economy and even create experience economy within the tourism industry.