We propose an algorithm for encoding linear kinetic plasma problems in quantum circuits. The focus is on modelling electrostatic linear waves in a one-dimensional Maxwellian electron plasma. The waves are described by the linearized Vlasov–Ampère system with a spatially localized external current that drives plasma oscillations. This system is formulated as a boundary-value problem and cast in the form of a linear vector equation $\boldsymbol {A}{\boldsymbol{\psi} } = \boldsymbol {b}$ to be solved by using the quantum signal processing algorithm. The latter requires encoding of matrix $\boldsymbol {A}$ in a quantum circuit as a sub-block of a unitary matrix. We propose how to encode $\boldsymbol {A}$ in a circuit in a compressed form and discuss how the resulting circuit scales with the problem size and the desired precision.

In magnetic confinement fusion devices close to axisymmetry, such as tokamaks, a key element is the winding profile of the magnetic field lines, or its inverse, the safety profile $q=q_{\boldsymbol {B}}$. A corresponding profile, $q_{\boldsymbol {J}}$, can be defined for the current density field lines. Ampère's law relates any mode of current perturbation $\delta \boldsymbol {J}_{m,n}$ with a mode of magnetic perturbation $\delta \boldsymbol {B}_{m,n}$. It is shown that the knowledge of the pair $(q_{\boldsymbol {B}},q_{\boldsymbol {J}})$ allows us then to characterize the resonant, or non-resonant, nature of the modes for both the magnetic and current density field lines. The expression of $q_{\boldsymbol {J}}$ in the flux coordinate is derived. Including this calculation in real-time Grad–Shafranov equilibrium reconstruction codes would yield a comprehensive view of the magnetics. The monitoring of the pair $(q_{\boldsymbol {B}},q_{\boldsymbol {J}})$ would then allow us to investigate the role played by the resonant modes for the current density, that are current filamentary modes, in the plasma small-scale turbulence. By driving the magnetic and current density profiles apart so that the images of $q_{\boldsymbol {B}}$ and $q_{\boldsymbol {J}}$ are disjoint, these filamentary modes would not impact the magnetic field topology, being not associated with magnetic islands but with non-resonant magnetic modes. It remains to be explored to what extent such a configuration, where the spectrum of tiny current density filaments produces a spectrum of magnetic modes that has practically no effect on heat transport, is beneficial.

Transit-time damping (TTD) is a process in which the magnetic mirror force – induced by the parallel gradient of magnetic field strength – interacts with resonant plasma particles in a time-varying magnetic field, leading to the collisionless damping of electromagnetic waves and the resulting energization of those particles through the perpendicular component of the electric field, $E_\perp$. In this study, we utilize the recently developed field–particle correlation technique to analyse gyrokinetic simulation data. This method enables the identification of the velocity-space structure of the TTD energy transfer rate between waves and particles during the damping of plasma turbulence. Our analysis reveals a unique bipolar pattern of energy transfer in the velocity-space characteristic of TTD. By identifying this pattern, we provide clear evidence of TTD's significant role in the damping of strong plasma turbulence. Additionally, we compare the TTD signature with that of Landau damping (LD). Although they both produce a bipolar pattern of phase-space energy density loss and gain about the parallel resonant velocity of the Alfvénic waves, they are mediated by different forces and exhibit different behaviours as the perpendicular velocity $v_\perp \to 0$. We also explore how the dominant damping mechanism varies with ion plasma beta $\beta _i$, showing that TTD dominates over LD for $\beta _i > 1$. This work deepens our understanding of the role of TTD in the damping of weakly collisional plasma turbulence and paves the way to seek the signature of TTD using in situ spacecraft observations of turbulence in space plasmas.

An overview of the neutral beam injectors developed at the Budker Institute of Nuclear Physics in Novosibirsk during the last 10 years is presented. These neutral injectors are used for plasma diagnostics, heating and current drive in modern fusion devices with magnetic confinement. An arc or a radio-frequency (RF) discharge generates a plasma in the ion sources of the injectors, and a positive hydrogen or deuterium ion beam is extracted and accelerated by a multiaperture ion-optical system (IOS). The accelerated ion beam is converted into a neutral one in a gas target. The precision multiaperture IOS with spherically concave electrodes provides ballistic focusing of the neutral beam. The high-energy, high-power beam injector based on negative ions, which is currently under development, is described as well. It comprises a RF negative ion source and a wide-aperture electrostatic accelerator separated from the source by a low-energy beam transport line, thereby improving the injector reliability.

We present a stellarator configuration optimized for a large threshold (‘critical gradient’) for the onset of the ion temperature gradient (ITG) driven mode, which achieves the largest critical gradient we have seen in any stellarator. Above this threshold, gyrokinetic simulations show that the configuration has low turbulence levels over an experimentally relevant range of the drive strength. The applied optimization seeks to maximize the drift curvature, leading to enhanced local-shear stabilization of toroidal ITG modes, and the associated turbulence. These benefits are combined with excellent quasi-symmetry, yielding low neoclassical transport and vanishingly small alpha particle losses. Analysis of the resulting configuration suggests a trade-off between magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) and ITG stability, as the new configuration possesses a vacuum magnetic hill.

In this work we consider the problem of optimizing a stellarator subject to hard constraints on the design variables and physics properties of the equilibrium. We survey current numerical methods for handling these constraints, and summarize a number of methods from the wider optimization community that have not been used extensively for stellarator optimization thus far. We demonstrate the utility of new methods of constrained optimization by optimizing a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator for favourable physics properties while preventing strong shaping of the plasma boundary, which can be difficult to create with external current sources.

Linearized gravity around a rotating black hole or compact object introduces the concept of a gravitomagnetic field, which originates from the matter–current in the rotating object. Plasma in proximity to this object is subsequently subjected to motion guided by this gravitomagnetic term (where mass serves as the effective charge) in addition to the conventional magnetic field. Such an interplay of fields complicates the accessible plasma waves of the system and thus merits exploration to delineate this interplay, to identify any observable signatures of the gravitomagnetic field in weakly magnetized systems, and to motivate future numerical work in a fully relativistic setting where the effects may be stronger. In this work we analyse the dispersion of the upper and lower hybrid electrostatic waves in a plasma immersed in both magnetic and gravitomagnetic fields. In particular, we discuss the effective augmentation or cancellation of the two fields under the right conditions for the upper hybrid wave. In contrast, the lower hybrid wave experiences a frequency up-shift from the gravitomagnetic field regardless of whether it is parallel or antiparallel to the magnetic field for the studied field strengths.

The magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations, as a collisional fluid model that remains in local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE), have long been used to describe turbulence in myriad space and astrophysical plasmas. Yet, the vast majority of these plasmas, from the solar wind to the intracluster medium (ICM) of galaxy clusters, are only weakly collisional at best, meaning that significant deviations from LTE are not only possible but common. Recent studies have demonstrated that the kinetic physics inherent to this weakly collisional regime can fundamentally transform the evolution of such plasmas across a wide range of scales. Here, we explore the consequences of pressure anisotropy and Larmor-scale instabilities for collisionless, $\beta \gg 1$, turbulence, focusing on the role of a self-organizational effect known as ‘magneto-immutability’. We describe this self-organization analytically through a high-$\beta$, reduced ordering of the Chew–Goldberger–Low-MHD (CGL-MHD) equations, finding that it is a robust inertial-range effect that dynamically suppresses magnetic-field-strength fluctuations, anisotropic-pressure stresses and dissipation due to heat fluxes. As a result, the turbulent cascade of Alfvénic fluctuations continues below the putative viscous scale to form a robust, nearly conservative, MHD-like inertial range. These findings are confirmed numerically via Landau-fluid CGL-MHD turbulence simulations that employ a collisional closure to mimic the effects of microinstabilities. We find that microinstabilities occupy a small (${\sim }5\,\%$) volume-filling fraction of the plasma, even when the pressure anisotropy is driven strongly towards its instability thresholds. We discuss these results in the context of recent predictions for ion-vs-electron heating in low-luminosity accretion flows and observations implying suppressed viscosity in ICM turbulence.

Our earth is immersed in the near-earth space plasma environment, which plays a vital role in protecting our planet against the solar-wind impact and influencing space activities. It is significant to investigate the physical processes dominating the environment, for deepening our scientific understanding of it and improving the ability to forecast the space weather. As a crucial part of the National Major Scientific and Technological Infrastructure–Space Environment Simulation Research Infrastructure (SESRI) in Harbin, the Space Plasma Environment Research Facility (SPERF) builds a system to replicate the near-earth space plasma environment in the laboratory. The system aims to simulate the three-dimensional (3-D) structure and processes of the terrestrial magnetosphere for the first time in the world, providing a unique platform to reveal the physics of the 3-D asymmetric magnetic reconnection relevant to the earth's magnetopause, wave–particle interaction in the earth's radiation belt, particles’ dynamics during the geomagnetic storm, etc. The paper will present the engineering design and construction of the near-earth space plasma simulation system of the SPERF, with a focus on the critical technologies that have been resolved to achieve the scientific goals. Meanwhile, the possible physical issues that can be studied based on the apparatus are sketched briefly. The earth-based system is of great value in understanding the space plasma environment and supporting space exploration.

The Vlasov–Maxwell equations provide an ab initio description of collisionless plasmas, but solving them is often impractical because of the wide range of spatial and temporal scales that must be resolved and the high dimensionality of the problem. In this work, we present a quantum-inspired semi-implicit Vlasov–Maxwell solver that uses the quantized tensor network (QTN) framework. With this QTN solver, the cost of grid-based numerical simulation of size $N$ is reduced from $O(N)$ to $O(\text {poly}(D))$, where $D$ is the ‘rank’ or ‘bond dimension’ of the QTN and is typically set to be much smaller than $N$. We find that for the five-dimensional test problems considered here, a modest $D=64$ appears to be sufficient for capturing the expected physics despite the simulations using a total of $N=2^{36}$ grid points, which would require $D=2^{18}$ for full-rank calculations. Additionally, we observe that a QTN time evolution scheme based on the Dirac–Frenkel variational principle allows one to use somewhat larger time steps than prescribed by the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy constraint. As such, this work demonstrates that the QTN format is a promising means of approximately solving the Vlasov–Maxwell equations with significantly reduced cost.

We have derived a necessary condition for the achievement of breakeven in axisymmetric plasmas with zero toroidal field and confined by a dipole magnetic field (B. Lehnert, Nature, vol. 181, 1958, p. 4605; A. Hasegawa, Comments Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion, vol. 11, no. 3, 1987). Excellent MHD stability, high values of $\beta$ (up to $26$ %) and good confinement properties awaken the interest of private investors after years of neglect due to lack of public funding and competing alternative lines of research like the tokamak. Starting from a requirement of self-consistency between the balances of momentum and energy in a dipole-confined, two-species plasma and assuming a Maxwellian distribution function for ions and electrons, we derive a necessary condition for breakeven. This condition is more stringent than the Lawson criterion because of the lack of a stabilizing toroidal field. For a given current flowing across the toroidal coil internal to the plasma, the crucial factor at stake is the ratio between the radius of the main toroidal coil and the radius of the vacuum chamber.

In a recent publication (Toler et al., J. Plasma Phys., vol. 89, issue 2, 2023, p. 905890210), we demonstrated that for axisymmetric geometries, the Kapur–Rokhlin quadrature rule provided an efficient and high-order accurate method for computing the normal component, on the plasma surface, of the magnetic field due to the toroidal current flowing in the plasma, via the virtual-casing principle. The calculation was indirect, as it required the prior computation of the magnetic vector potential from the virtual-casing principle, followed by the computation of its tangential derivative by Fourier differentiation, to obtain the normal component of the magnetic field. Our approach did not provide the other components of the virtual-casing magnetic field. In this letter, we show that a more direct and more general approach is available for the computation of the virtual-casing magnetic field. The Kapur–Rokhlin quadrature rule accurately calculates the principal value integrals in the expression for all the components of the magnetic field on the plasma boundary, and the numerical error converges at a rate nearly as high as the indirect method we presented previously.

Collisions are an important dissipation mechanism in plasmas. When approximating collision operators numerically, it is important to preserve their mathematical structure in order to retain the laws of thermodynamics at the discrete level. This is particularly challenging when considering particle methods. A simple but commonly used collision operator is the Lenard–Bernstein operator, or its modified energy- and momentum-conserving counterpart. In this work, we present a macro-particle discretisation of this operator that is provably energy and momentum preserving.

In the radiation hydrodynamic simulations used to design inertial confinement fusion (ICF) and pulsed power experiments, nonlinear radiation diffusion tends to dominate CPU time. This raises the interesting question of whether a quantum algorithm can be found for nonlinear radiation diffusion which provides a quantum speedup. Recently, such a quantum algorithm was introduced based on a quantum algorithm for solving systems of nonlinear partial differential equations (PDEs) which provides a quadratic quantum speedup. Here, we apply this quantum PDE (QPDE) algorithm to the problem of a non-equilibrium Marshak wave propagating through a cold, semi-infinite, optically thick target, where the radiation and matter fields are not assumed to be in local thermodynamic equilibrium. The dynamics is governed by a coupled pair of nonlinear PDEs which are solved using the QPDE algorithm, as well as two standard PDE solvers: (i) Python's py-pde solver; and (ii) the KULL ICF simulation code developed at Lawrence-Livermore National Laboratory. We compare the simulation results obtained using the QPDE algorithm and the standard PDE solvers and find excellent agreement.

Understanding the partitioning of turbulent energy between ions and electrons in weakly collisional plasmas is crucial for the accurate interpretation of observations and modelling of various astrophysical phenomena. Many such plasmas are ‘imbalanced’, wherein the large-scale energy input is dominated by Alfvénic fluctuations propagating in a single direction. In this paper, we demonstrate that when strongly-magnetised plasma turbulence is imbalanced, nonlinear conservation laws imply the existence of a critical value of the electron plasma beta (the ratio of the thermal to magnetic pressures) that separates two dramatically different types of turbulence in parameter space. For betas below the critical value, the free energy injected on the largest scales is able to undergo a familiar Kolmogorov-type cascade to small scales where it is dissipated, heating electrons. For betas above the critical value, the system forms a ‘helicity barrier’ that prevents the cascade from proceeding past the ion Larmor radius, causing the majority of the injected free energy to be deposited into ion heating. Physically, the helicity barrier results from the inability of the system to adjust to the disparity between the perpendicular-wavenumber scalings of the free energy and generalised helicity below the ion Larmor radius; restoring finite electron inertia can annul, or even reverse, this disparity, giving rise to the aforementioned critical beta. We relate this physics to the ‘dynamic phase alignment’ mechanism (that operates under yet lower beta conditions and in pair plasmas), and characterise various other important features of the helicity barrier, including the nature of the nonlinear wavenumber-space fluxes, dissipation rates, and energy spectra. The existence of such a critical beta has important implications for heating, as it suggests that the dominant recipient of the turbulent energy, ions or electrons, can depend sensitively on the characteristics of the plasma at large scales.

We present a theoretical analysis of electron pitch-angle scattering by ion-acoustic electrostatic fluctuations present in the Earth's bow shock and, presumably, collisionless shocks in general. We numerically simulate electron interaction with a single wave packet to demonstrate the scattering through phase bunching and phase trapping and quantify electron pitch-angle scattering in dependence on the wave amplitude and wave normal angle to the local magnetic field. The iterative mapping technique is used to model pitch-angle scattering of electrons by a large number of wave packets, which have been reported in the Earth's bow shock. Assuming that successive electron scatterings are not correlated, we revealed that the long-term dynamics of electrons is diffusive. The diffusion coefficient depends on the ratio $\varPhi _0/W$ between the wave packet amplitude and electron energy, $D\propto (\varPhi _0/W)^{\nu }$. A quasi-linear scaling ($\nu \approx 2$) is observed for sufficiently small wave amplitudes, $\varPhi _0\lesssim 10^{-3}W$, while the diffusion is nonlinear ($1<\nu <2$) above this threshold. We show that pitch-angle diffusion of ${\lesssim }1$ keV electrons in the Earth's bow shock can be nonlinear. The corresponding diffusion coefficient scales with the intensity $E_{w}^{2}$ of the electrostatic fluctuations in a nonlinear fashion, $D\propto E_{w}^{\nu }$ with $\nu <2$, while its expected values in the Earth's bow shock are $D\sim 0.1\unicode{x2013}100$ $(T_{e}/W)^{\nu -1/2}\,{\rm rad}^{2}\,{\rm s}^{-1}$. We speculate that in the Earth's quasi-perpendicular bow shock the stochastic shock drift acceleration mechanism with pitch-angle scattering provided by the electrostatic fluctuations can contribute to the acceleration of thermal electrons up to approximately 1 keV. The potential effects of a finite perpendicular coherence scale of the wave packets on the efficiency of electron scattering are discussed.

The main emphasis of the Laser Ion Generation, Handling and Transport (LIGHT) beamline at GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung GmbH are phase-space manipulations of laser-generated ion beams. In recent years, the LIGHT collaboration has successfully generated and focused intense proton bunches with an energy of 8 MeV and a temporal duration shorter than 1 ns (FWHM). An interesting area of application that exploits the short ion bunch properties of LIGHT is the study of ion-stopping power in plasmas, a key process in inertial confinement fusion for understanding energy deposition in dense plasmas. The most challenging regime is found when the projectile velocity closely approaches the thermal plasma electron velocity ($v_{i}\approx v_{e,\text {th}}$), for which existing theories show high discrepancies. Since conclusive experimental data are scarce in this regime, we plan to conduct experiments on laser-generated plasma probed with ions generated with LIGHT at a higher temporal resolution than previously achievable. The high temporal resolution is important because the parameters of laser-generated plasmas are changing on the nanosecond time scale. To meet this goal, our recent studies have dealt with ions of lower kinetic energies. In 2021, laser accelerated carbon ions were transported with two solenoids and focused temporally with LIGHT's radio frequency cavity. A bunch length of 1.2 ns (FWHM) at an energy of 0.6 MeV u$^{-1}$ was achieved. In 2022, protons with an energy of 0.6 MeV were transported and temporally compressed to a bunch length of 0.8 ns. The proton beam was used to measure the energy loss in a cold foil. Both the ion and proton beams will also be employed for energy loss measurements in a plasma target.

The available energy of a plasma is defined as the maximum amount by which the plasma energy can be lowered by volume-preserving rearrangements in phase space, so-called Gardner restacking. A general expression is derived for the available energy of a nearly homogeneous plasma and is shown to be closely related to the Helmholtz free energy, which it can never exceed. A number of explicit examples are given.

The response tensor is derived for a relativistically streaming, strongly magnetized, one-dimensional Jüttner distribution of electrons and positrons, referred to as a pulsar plasma. This is used to produce a general treatment of wave dispersion in a pulsar plasma. Specifically, relativistic streaming, the spread in Lorentz factors in a pulsar rest frame and cyclotron resonances are taken into account. Approximations to the response tensor are derived by making approximations to relativistic plasma dispersion functions appearing in the general form of the response tensor. The cold-plasma limit, the highly relativistic limit and limits related to cyclotron resonances are considered. The theory developed in this paper has applications to generalized Faraday rotation in pulsars and magnetars.

The quantum three-wave interaction, the lowest-order nonlinear interaction in plasma physics, describes energy–momentum transfer between three resonant waves in the quantum regime. We describe how it may also act as a finite-degree-of-freedom approximation to the classical three-wave interaction in certain circumstances. By promoting the field variables to operators, we quantize the classical system, show that the quantum system has more free parameters than the classical system and explain how these parameters may be selected to optimize either initial or long-term correspondence. We then numerically compare the long-time quantum–classical correspondence far from the fixed point dynamics. We discuss the Poincaré recurrence of the system and the mitigation of quantum scrambling.