Mycobacterium marinum, formerly known as ‘Mycobacterium balnei’, is a free-living organism which causes disease in fish and occasionally in man. When such infections occur in man they are usually associated with some aquatic activity, e.g. swimming, fishing, boating and keeping tropical fish. For this reason, the organism has been called a ‘leisure-time pathogen’ by Feldman, Long & David (1974) and the disease a ‘hobby hazard’ by Heineman, Spitzer & Pianphongsant (1972).

A rapid method for determining the presence of salmonella in food is described. It consists of pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water modified by the addition of dulcitol. and trimethylamine oxide, followed by selective enrichment in a selenite—cystine broth with similar modifications. Changes in the conductance of the selective enrichment broth are monitored continuously using a suitable impediometric instrument. Most of the Salmonella spp. tested gave a fast (˜100 μS/h) and large (> 600 μS) change in conductance, other enteric bacteria much less or no change. The assay is usually complete within 24 h. Samples of foodstuffs, naturally and artificially contaminated with Salmonella spp., were all correctly classified. Some strains of Citrobacter freundii produced a false positive conductance response, and they could not be selectively eliminated using antibiotics or cyanide. The conductance method is simple and easy to use, gives rapid results and involves less media and subculturing than is required for traditional methods.

New technologies now enable virologists to study small genetic and antigenic differences between field isolates of animal viruses at a higher level of discrimination than has been possible using conventional serological techniques. The most important of the laboratory techniques revolve around the use of monoclonal antibodies, peptide mapping, fingerprinting of whole RNA virus genomes, RNA:RNA hybridization, ‘electropherotyping’ of virus RNA or polypeptides, restriction enzyme analysis of virus DNA genomes, cloning of genes and rapid sequencing of viral DNAs and RNAs, in the latter case using primer extension techniques (reviewed by Palese & Roizman, 1980). From a practical point of view, genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity among viruses may be of considerable importance in attempts to control certain virus diseases by chemo- or immunoprophylaxis.

Sixteen isolates of Escherichia coli were subjected to bacterial restriction endonuclease DNA analysis (BRENDA). Nine of these isolates were from an outbreak of human diarrhoea and produced stable toxin, the remaining seven were non-toxigenic strains from animal and human sources. The isolates from the outbreak produced indistinguishable DNA electrophoretic patterns in spite of their assignment to seven different H serotypes. Their BRENDA patterns were markedly different from the other isolates examined. These results support the epidemiological evidence that a single-strain outbreak had occurred, and they cast doubt on the value of H typing for this particular investigation.

Four hundred and sixty admissions for whooping cough to three hospitals between 1974–9 were reviewed. Many children had a long illness. More than half of them had severe or moderately severe coughing spasms and a quarter had pronounced feeding difficulties. The incidence of clinical pneumonia and convulsions was low and there were no deaths. The disease continues to be much more severe in infancy. There was some evidence that the disease declined in severity over the period studied. A number of factors including increased use of erythromycin may have contributed to this change.

Human strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis were divided into the ‘Classical’ and ‘Asian’ types according to their sensitivity to thiophen-2-carboxylic acid hydrazide. The isolation of these two types in South-East England was studied during a seven-year period (1977–1983). The ‘Asian’ type was more prevalent among ethnic Asian patients than among ethnic Europeans. Among Europeans there was a decline in the isolation rate of ‘Classical’ strains and a small but significant increase in ‘Asian’ strains during the study period, so that the proportion of the latter type in this group is increasing. The type of bacillus was unrelated to the site of isolation except that the incidence of lymphadenitis due to the ‘Asian’ type among European females was significantly higher than expected. In general, European patients tended to be older than Asian patients, and the differences in age distribution according to site of isolation and type of bacillus in each ethnic group were small. A notable exception occurred with European females infected with the ‘Asian’ type, whose age distribution was similar to the Asians.

In view of the differences in behaviour of the two types of human tubercle bacilli in this country there is a need to cintinue a bacteriological surveillance and also to determine whether the nature of the host–pathogen interaction varies according to the type of bacillus.

Staphylococci from 22 cases of toxic shock syndrome with onsets between 1981 and March 1983 have been studied. Another four cases were detected by abstract surveillance. Three of these patients died. The case histories show that the syndrome occurs in women during menstruation as well as in males and in children, and is associated with Staphylococcus aureus infections.

The production of enterotoxins (A, B, C) and toxic shock toxin by S. aureus isolates from toxic shock syndrome was investigated. Twenty-two of the 23 isolates were found to be toxigenie: 7 produced enterotoxin A, 8 produced enterotoxin B, 3 produced enterotoxin C and 13 produced toxic shock toxin. The latter was found with enterotoxin A in five cases, and with enterotoxins A and B in only one case.

Sixty-three percent of 40 S. aureus strains isolated from the vagina of patients with diseases other than toxic shock syndrome produced toxin; eight of these strains produced toxic shock toxin.

A widespread epidemic of severe dysentery in Zaire and neighbouring Central African countries was caused by a multiply drug-resistant strain of Shigella dysenteriae 1. Early isolations were resistant to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, sulphonamides and tetracyclines (R-type = ACSSuT). Later in the epidemic strains resistant to trimethoprim (Tm) became prevalent and a few strains resistant to kanamycin (K) or nalidixic acid were also isolated. All resistances except nalidixic acid were encoded by plasmids of incompatibility groups X (ACT) or I1 (ACSSuTTm) and the epidemic strain also carried an SSu plasmid and a number of cryptic plasmids. The Inc X plasmid from this epidemic is the same as that in Sh. dysenteriae 1 strains isolated in Somalia in 1976 whereas the epidemic strains from the Shiga outbreaks in Central America, 1969 to 1971, and Sri Lanka, 1979, carried plasmids of group B. This epidemic demonstrates that when a multiresistant strain includes resistance to trimethoprim, nalidixic acid is a suitable alternative therapeutic agent.

The efficacy of iodophor germicides containing different concentrations of available iodine against transient (inoculated) bacteria and the natural hand microflora was compared with chlorhexidine gluconate (2 and 4%) liquid detergent (Hibitane), non-germicidal soap and a tap water rinse. The tap water rinse was ineffective compared with all other treatments. Only 4% chlorhexidine gluconate liquid detergent and iodophor containing 0·75% available iodine were significantly better than the non-germicidal soap for reduction of transient bacteria, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas fluorescens, that had been inoculated onto hands. These agents also caused a significant reduction in the number of ‘natural’ micro-organisms released from hands after a standard 15 s hand wash. The low-concentration iodophor products and the product containing 2% chlorhexidine gluconate failed to give results significantly better than the non-germicidal control soap. Baird-Parker medium and standard aerobic plate counts were highly correlated (r = 0·82), so that for studies of Gram-negative bacteria inoculated onto hands as a transient microflora, counts on Baird-Parker medium give a reasonable indication of the natural (residual) hand microflora.

The purpose of this study was to assess the feasibility, acceptability and effect of an in-home water chlorination programme in a rural village. Previous studies at this site showed high levels of faecal coliforms in household water, high diarrhoea rates in children, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and rotaviruses were the most common pathogens isolated from patients. Household water came from a pond and was stored in clay pots. No homes had sanitary facilities. A blind, cross-over trial of treatment of household water with inexpensive hypochlorite by a community health worker was carried out over 18 weeks among 20 families. Water in the clay pots was sampled serially, and symptom surveillance was done by medical students. The programme was generally acceptable to the villagers and no change in water use patterns were apparent. The mean faecal coliform level in the chlorinated water was significantly less than in the placebo treated samples (70 vs 16000 organisms/dl, P < 0·001). People living in houses receiving placebo treatment had a mean of 11·2 days of diarrhoea per year, and the highest rate of 36·7 was among children less than 2 years old. Diarrhoea rates were not significantly different among the participants while exposed to water treated with hypochlorite. We conclude that a low-cost programme of this type, which utilizes community resources, is logistically feasible, appears to be culturally acceptable in this setting, and can result in a marked reduction in water contamination. The lack of effect on diarrhoea rates suggests that improvement in water quality may affect morbidity only when other variables relating to faecal–oral agent transmission are ameliorated at the same time.

In a 12-month survey (June 1982–May 1983) 41 laboratories examined 2493 samples of goat's milk for colony counts and the presence of pathogens. The statutory tests for cow's milk were also applied.

Surface counts of < 105 organisms per ml of raw milk were given by 79% of samples at 37 °C and by 76% at 22 °C. There were < 100 coliforms per ml in 71% of samples, < 10 Escherichia coli per ml in 91%. Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in countable numbers in 96% of samples. Only one isolation of campylobacter was made and two of Yersinia enterocolitica. Salmonella was not detected in 2462 samples. The methylene blue test was carried out on 2368 samples and 86·7% were deemed satisfactory. No sample was Brucella ring-test-positive.

Experiments on the survival and growth of six food poisoning organisms in stored goat's milk showed that Bacillus cereus, Staph. aureus, Salmonella typhimurium and Y. enterocolitica survived quite well and multiplied at the higher storage temperature of 30 °C. Clostridium perfringens only increased 10- to 100-fold while Campylobacter jejuni did not grow.

The results of the survey indicate that any problems with goat's milk relate to poor hygiene during production rather than transmission of organisms from the goat herself.

A study was made of the incidence of Neisseria meningitidis and N. lactamica in a school population; 2470 children aged between 5 and 7 years were studied from four schools in Alcala de Henares (Madrid). Nasopharyngeal swabs were taken in June, November and March, between 1979 and 1983.

In all the surveys except one, the proportion of carriers of N. lactamica was higher than that of N. meningitidis, reaching a ratio of about 2:1 in the complete study.

The predominant serogroup of meningococcus found was B (41%), with nongroupable strains reaching 43%. A study of serotypes within group B showed a predominance of nontypable strains (48·5%), while those strains considered to be most virulent (types 2 and 1, 8, 15) reached 40%.

Eighteen per cent of N. lactamica strains were observed to agglutinate with antimeningococcal sera whilst the remainder of the strains were rough. When these strains were studied with the antiscrum-agar technique, using antimeningococcal sera, a high percentage of strains cross-reacted with the meningococci. The susceptibility of strains to sulphadiazine, penicillin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol, rifampicin and spiramycin was determined.

Finally an analysis was made of the effect that an elevated colonization rate of N. lactamica might have on colonization by meningococi. The necessity of using fine epidemiological markers in tracing virulent strains in a population at risk is stressed. Selective prophylactic measures are also necessary.

The virulence of Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli isolated from various water sources was compared with that of clinical strains by in vitro assays of adhesion, invasion and cytotoxicity to HeLa cells. Variation in degree of attachment was observed, but this did not appear to be related to strain source, However, water strains were less invasive and less cytotoxic to HeLa cells than clinical strains as shown by immunofluorescence and electron microscopy.

These differences were particularly evident between clinical and water isolates of the same serotype and biotype implicated in an outbreak of campylobacter enteritis in a school. The enhanced virulence of the clinical isolates, possibly induced by passage, was confirmed by colonization tests on infant mice.

For many years strains of Escherichia coli belonging to particular serotypes (EPEC) were a common cause of outbreaks of infantile enteritis in Europe and North America. E. coli 0142. H6 was first isolated from infants with diarrhoea in Indonesia in 1960 and a further outbreak occurred in Mexico in 1965. Between 1967 and 1972 outbreaks of infantile enteritis caused by E. coli 0142 were reported in hospitals in Scotland, England, Northern Ireland and Eire. Sporadic cases occurred in Canada in 1972 and a further outbreak occurred in Arizona, U.S.A. in 1975. Strains from all these incidents were examined by biochemical and serological methods. Their resistance to antimicrobial drugs was determined and their resistance plasmids characterized; their plasmid profiles were visualized by agarose gel electrophoresis. The cumulative evidence suggests that strains isolated in the British Isles all belonged to a single clone and were related to those isolated in Indonesia, the U.S.A. and Canada. However, the strains from Mexico appeared to be unrelated. This study demonstrates that single clones of enteropathogenic E. coli may spread throughout the world, causing outbreaks of diarrhoeal disease and acquiring resistance to antimicrobial drugs.

The growth of coliform organisms on meat tissue from sheep carcasses processed in a commercial abattoir was investigated. The results indicated that for practical purposes the minimum temperature of growth of these organisms on meat may be taken as 8 °C. Equations were derived relating the generation time and the lag time of coliform organisms in raw blended mutton to the temperature at which the meat is held. Estimates of growth obtained with these equations were found to agree closely with the experimental results, especially at temperatures above 10 °C, and allowed the generation times and the lag times for all temperatures up to 40 °C to be calculated. These times were also found to agree closely with the times determined using a strain of Escherichia coli inoculated into blended mutton tissue. A strain of Salmonella typhimurium inoculated in the same way into blended mutton tissue gave longer generation and lag times at temperatures below 15 °C. Therefore, it is believed that the calculated tables of lag and generation times included in this paper can be used to determine the length of time raw chilled meat may be held afterwards at temperatures above the minimum temperature of growth without an increase in the number of any salmonella organisms present, and these times include a safety margin at each temperature.

The study indicates that the mandatory codes of practice presently applied in commercial abattoirs are too stringent. Maintaining the temperature of boning rooms at 10 °C or less does not appear to be necessary providing the meat is processed within the calculated time limits. A relaxation of the restrictions on boning room temperatures would decrease costs, increase worker comfort and safety and would not compromise the bacteriological safety of the meat produced.

A survey into the prevalence of salmonella organisms in sewage in the Borders Region of South-east Scotland is described. A total of 317 isolates representing 34 different serotypes were made, of which only 5 serotypes appeared in animals, supporting the view that the spreading of sewage sludge on to pastureland presents little risk to livestock provided the recommended guidelines are followed. Nevertheless, Salmonella typhimurium phage type 12, identified in sewage, was also recovered from animals in incidents on 11 farms, including 4 which had received sludge from this source. A further 48 isolates (13 serotypes) were obtained from the parallel monitoring of abattoir effluents, indicating that the background level of salmonella infection in the animal population appears to be low in comparison to that in humans.

The following enteropathogens were isolated from the faeces of 769 (10·2%) of 7,545 patients of whom 5,704 had diarrhoea or abdominal pain, attending a teaching hospital in Hong Kong during one year: salmonellae 458 (6·1%); Vibrio parahaemolyticus 125 (1·7%); campylobacters 108 (1·4%); shigellae 83 (1·1%); others 19 (0·3 %). Further identification of the campylobacter isolates showed that 63 (58%) were Campylobacter jejuni biotype 1, 44 (41%) were C. coli and only one was C. jejuni biotype 2. Seventy-five (69%) of the 108 campylobacters were isolated from children under two years of age, mostly during the second year of life. Faecal specimens from 1,841 children under the age of two years without gastrointestinal symptoms yielded almost the same percentages of salmonellae, campylobacters and shigellae as children with diarrhoea.

Salmonellae, shigellae and vibrios were isolated most often in the hot late summer months (August to October), but, contrary to the pattern in Europe and North America, both C. jejuni and C. coli were most prevalent in the coolest months of the year (January to March). The reasons for this ‘reversed’ trend are unknown.

The most widely used indicator of the sanitary quality of recreational waters is the coliform group of bacteria. Present techniques of coliform enumeration are imprecise, and this fact is too often overlooked in routine water quality surveys as well as in research efforts seeking quantitative relationships between coliform density and the health effects of recreational waters. To illustrate this point, three years of data gathered by the New York City Department of Health as part of their routine beach water sampling programme were re-analysed, taking the limited precision of each coliform estimate into account. Re-analysis showed 56·6% of the data were not significantly different (P > 0·05) from the standard being used. This large percentage of the data was of little value in determining the acceptability of the waters being sampled relative to the standard being used and thus represented a substantial waste of time and expense. Of the remaining data, half indicated acceptable water quality and half indicated unacceptable water quality relative to the standard. These three years of data, therefore, gave little information on the acceptability of the water quality at this location with respect to the standard being used. The data further suggest significant differences in coliform density within sample dates. It is recommended that in future water quality surveys, or in studies of the health effects of recreational waters as related to coliform density, emphasis should shift from maximizing the number of sample dates to maximizing the number of replicate determinations made per sample date.

The sequential acquisition of bacterial flora by premature neonates was studied during a 10 month period. Mean gestational age of the babies was 29·01 weeks and the mean birth weight was 1·728 kg. Escherichia coli and group B streptococci (GBS) colonized the umbilicus of 7 and 6 babies respectively, out of 23 studied, on the first day of life. E. coli and staphylococci were the predominant flora on the 6th day and they colonized 12 and 13 respectively. The oral flora was predominantly Gram-positive cocci, mainly Streptoccocus salivarius which was isolated from 17 out of 22 babies on the 6th day, viridians streptococci were isolated from 14 babies, Staphylococcus albus from 16 babies and group D streptococci from 11 babies. Candida spp. also colonized the oral cavities of 17 out of 22 babies on the 6th day. At the end of the first week of life, the faecal flora was predominantly anaerobic represented by Bifidobacteriurn spp., Bacterioides spp. and Clostridium spp. The commonest facultative faecal flora were E. coli, which was isolated from all the babies, and Strept. faecalis isolated from 20 babies. Early gut colonization by GBS, Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp. was noticed in more babies delivered vaginally than by caesarean section where colonization by these bacteria was relatively delayed. The use of prophylactic penicillin plus gentamicin in the special neonatal unit probably prevented systemic spread of any of the potential opportunistic pathogens during the study.

Hospital infections caused by strains of Staphylococcus aureus non-typable (NT) by phages have occurred in three Spanish hospitals since 1981. Reverse typing allowed characterization of the strains in all three cases.