Mammals are known to utilize wax esters with an efficiency of less than 50%. The purpose of the present study was to examine whether or not minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), which at times may eat considerable amounts of wax-ester-rich krill, represent an exception to this general pattern. Samples of fresh undigested forestomach, as well as colon, contents were obtained from minke whales (n 5) that had been feeding on krill (Thysanoessa inermis) for some time. The samples were analysed for dry mass, energy density, lipid content and the major lipid classes, including wax esters. The concentrations of wax esters were compared with previous estimates of dry-matter disappearance of the same type of prey using an in vitro technique, to calculate the dry-matter digestibility of wax esters (DMDwax). Wax esters contributed 21% of the energy and 47% of total lipids in the krill diet. The energy density of gut contents decreased by 50% after their passage from forestomach to the end of the colon. The DMDwax was 94·1 (SD 2·8)% (n 5). This high DMDwax and the occurrence of fatty alcohols, one of the products of wax-ester hydrolysis, in faeces show that minke whales are very efficient digesters of wax esters and absorb most of the energy-rich products of this process.

Milk and yoghurt proteins were 15N-labelled in order to measure the flow rate of exogenous N during digestion in the human intestine. After fasting overnight, sixteen healthy volunteers, each with a naso-jejunal tube, ingested either [15N]milk (n 7) or [15N]yoghurt (n 9). Jejunal samples were collected every 20 min for 4 h. A significant stimulation of endogenous N secretion was observed during the 20–60 min period after yoghurt ingestion and the 20–40 min period after milk ingestion. The endogenous N flows over a 4 h period did not differ between the groups (44·3 (SEM 6·5) mmol for milk and 63·5 (SEM 5·9) mmol for yoghurt). The flow rates of exogenous N indicated a delayed gastric emptying of the yoghurt N compared with N from milk. The jejunal non-protein N (NPN) flow rate increased significantly after milk and yoghurt ingestion due to an increase in the exogenous NPN flow rate. The NPN fraction of exogenous N ranged between 40 and 80%. The net gastro-jejunal absorption of exogenous N did not differ significantly between milk (56·7 (SEM 8·5)%) and yoghurt (50·9 (SEM 7)%). The high level of exogenous N hydrolysis is in accordance with the good digestibility of milk products. Fermentation modifies only the gastric emptying rate of N and does not affect the level of diet hydrolysis, the endogenous N stimulation or the digestibility rate.

The recovery of inulin, a naturally occurring β(2→l)-fructan isolated from Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus L.), in the small intestine of man was studied in ileostomy subjects. The ileostomists were given a low-dietary-fibre diet based on white wheat bread and virtually free of inulin, and the same diet with the addition of 10 g and 30 g inulin product respectively, and the recovery and mean transit time (MTT) of inulin were estimated by tracking inulin in ileal effluent. The recovery of inulin was approximately 87% at both ingestion levels. MTT was 4·9 (SE 0·6) h at an intake of 10 g inulin product decreasing to 3·4 (SE 0·3) h at an intake of 30 g Inulin product. A significant change in the fructose: glucose ratio of inulin from ingestion (4·1) to recovery in ileal effluent (4·5–4·7) and a lower recovery of the glucose residue than of the fructose residue of inulin indicate that the low-molecular-weight inulins are more sensitive to hydrolysis than the high-molecular-weight fragments. The loss of inulin during passage through the small intestine is presumably due to hydrolysis by either acids or enzymes and to microbial degradation by the microfiora permanently colonizing the distal small intestine. The concentrations of lactic acid (LA) and short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) in frequently collected ileal effluents on the control day were approximately 6 mmol/l and approximately 55 mmol/l respectively. During periods with inulin ingestion the concentration of LA increased to 18–26 mmol/l (P < 0·052), while the concentration of SCFA ran converse and decreased to 18–32 mmol/l (P < 0·023). The osmotic loads (68 and 204 mosmol/l) associated with the ingestion of inulin product caused minor malabsorption of low-molecular-weight sugars.

The effects of different amounts of the non-absorbable fat replacer sucrose polyester (SPE), water, and fat added to six warm preload lunches on feelings of appetite and food intake were investigated in two studies that were replicates of each other. In the first study thirty-nine subjects consumed rice preloads; in the second study thirty-five subjects consumed macaroni preloads. The six preloads were fixed on three energy levels: 1·8, 2·7, or 3·7MJ. At 2 h after preload consumption a test-meal buffet of thirty-one products was presented. Food intake was recorded on the study day, and the day after the study day. For women no energy compensation occurred in either study. Men showed a tendency to compensate for the energy differences between the preloads. However, when the fat of the preloads was replaced by SPE, energy compensation was less than 50% and non-significant. Statistically significant energy-compensation (66 %) was found when fat was replaced by water. No macronutrient-specific compensation occurred in men or women in either study. Lower total fat and energy intakes were found with the preloads where fat was replaced by SPE compared with the preloads containing fat. The appetite ratings were in line with the energy intake values, with no differences in women, and higher appetite ratings after the lower energy preloads in men. This short-term study indicates that SPE may be a useful aid to reduce fat and energy intakes.

The effect of Fe fortification on the absorption of Zn was studied by radioisotopic labelling of single meals, followed by measurements of whole-body retention of 65Zn at 14 d after intake. Healthy adult volunteers participated in the study. Weaning cereal, wheat bread and infant formula, foods that are all frequently Fe-fortified, were evaluated in the study. The amounts of Fe added as FeSO4 were similar to the levels in commercial products in Europe and the USA, and were 200 or 500 mg Fe/kg (weaning cereal), 65 mg Fe/kg (white wheat flour) and 12 mg Fe/1 (infant formula). For comparison, Zn absorption was measured in the same subjects, from identical test meals containing no added Fe. No statistically significant differences were found when Zn absorption from the Fe-fortified test meals was compared with that from non-Fe-fortified test meals. Fractional Zn-absorption values from Fe-fortified v. non-fortified meals were 31·1 (sd 1·19) v. 30·7 (SD 7·0)% (weaning cereal; 200 mg Fe/kg), 37·7 (SD 16·6) v. 30·2 (SD 9·9)% (weaning cereal; 500 mg Fe/kg), 36·5 (SD 14·4) v. 38·2 (SD 18·1)% (bread; 65 mg Fe/kg flour) and 41·6 (SD 8·1) v. 38·9 (SD 14·5)% (infant formula; 12 mg Fe/1). The addition of Fe to foods at the currently used fortification levels was thus not associated with impaired absorption of Zn and the consumption of these Fe-fortified foods would not be expected to have a negative effect on Zn nutrition.

The present experiment was undertaken to verify if the demand of tissues for pteroylglutamic (folic) acid, evaluated by serum clearance and urinary excretion of folates, is different between multiparous dairy cows in late gestation (five gestating dry cows, 52.6 (SD 8.4) d before parturition), and in early lactation (four lactating non-gestating cows, 18.0 (SD 5.9) d after parturition). On day 1 the cows received one intravenous (i.v.) injection of 50 μg pteroylmonoglutamic acid/kg body weight (BW). Blood samples were taken at 0, 5, 15, 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 h after the i.v. injection. On day 3 the cows received one intramuscular (i.m.) injection of 0.3 mg pteroylmonoglutamic acid/kg BW. Blood and urine samples, as well as urine volume, were taken at 0, 1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 24, 36 and 48 h after the i.m. injection. On days 5, 6 and 7 a daily i.m. injection of 0.5 mg pteroylmonoglutamic acid/kg BW was given in an attempt to saturate tissues with folates. Then the cows received one i.v. (day 8) and one i.m. (day 10) injection of pteroylmonoglutamic acid according to the same procedures described previously for days 1 and 3. On day 12 plasma volume was determined. Before tissue saturation, serum clearance of folates during the 24 h following an i.v. injection was similar for gestating and lactating cows but after tissue saturation serum clearance was slower for lactating than gestating cows (stage x saturation, P = 0.04). The percentage of folates excreted in urine was not affected by the physiological stage (P ≥ 0.6) or the level of tissue saturation (P ≥ 0.5). In conclusion, serum clearance and urinary excretion of pteroylmonoglutamic acid seem to support the hypothesis that, in multiparous cows, although there are no deficiency symptoms, tissue demand for folic acid is high, especially during gestation.

A defective thermic response to food may be an energy-sparing adaptation in both obesity and pregnancy. To evaluate the combined effect of obesity and pregnancy on postprandial thermogenesis, the thermic effect of food was assessed for a 240 min period following a high-carbohydrate meal and a typical mixed meal in nine normal-weight non-pregnant, eight overweight non-pregnant, eight normal-weight pregnant and six overweight pregnant women using indirect calorimetry. A test meal that provided 60% of each subject's measured daily requirement for basal metabolism was used. Pregnant women were studied during weeks 30–35 of gestation. Neither obesity nor pregnancy altered the thermic effect of food, although the response to the mixed meal was greater (P <0·01) than that to the high-carbohydrate meal in all cases. The mean responses for the high-carbohydrate and mixed meals were 26·9 (SD 6·0) and 30·1 (SD 6·2)% baseline energy expenditure respectively, and 7·4 (SD 1·6) and 8·3 (SD 1·6)% of the meal energy load respectively. Obesity and pregnancy were associated with hyperinsulinaemia (P <0·005) following both test meals, suggesting that postprandial thermogenesis was not altered by insulin resistance in this group. The incremental glucose response was elevated (P <0·001) in the pregnant women following both test meals; overweight women tended to have a greater incremental glucose response following the high-carbohydrate meal, but it was not significant (P = 0·065). These results do not provide evidence of an impaired thermic response to food in either overweight or third trimester pregnant women.

To examine the hormonal effects of isoflavones, of which soyabean is a rich source, fifteen healthy non-vegetarian premenopausal women were studied over 9 months. They lived in a metabolic suite for between 4 and 6 months where their diet and activity levels were kept constant and their hormonal status was measured over two or three menstrual cycles. During one (control) menstrual cycle a normal but constant diet containing no soyabean products was fed. Then, over a second complete cycle six subjects consumed a similar diet into which 60 g textured vegetable protein (TVP)/d, containing 45 mg conjugated isoflavones, had been incorporated. Three participants had 50 g miso (a fermented soyabean paste), containing 25 mg unconjugated isoflavones, added daily to their diet over a menstrual cycle, and six others consumed 28 g TVP/d, containing 23 mg conjugated isoflavones. Five participants completed a third diet period where they were randomly assigned to consume either the control diet over a cycle, or a similar diet incorporating 60 g of a soyabean product which had had the isoflavones chemically extracted (Arcon F). Follicular phase length was significantly (P < 0·01) increased and peak progesterone concentrations were delayed with 60 g TVP but no effects were observed with Arcon F. The increase in menstrual cycle length did not reach statistical significance in the three subjects who ate 50 g miso/d, but peak progesterone levels were significantly (P < 0·05) delayed. Mid-cycle peaks of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) were suppressed with 45 mg conjugated isoflavones as 60 g TVP (P < 0·05 and P < 0·01 respectively). No other changes in sex-steroid hormone levels were observed on any of the other diets. A significant reduction in total cholesterol was found with 45 mg conjugated isoflavones (P < 0·05), but not with 23 mg conjugated isoflavone-free Arcon F. There was no effect of menstrual cycle phase on transit time.

A novel substance called liquid fibre (LF) has been developed which gels in the stomach and dramatically delays gastric emptying. The prolonged stomach distension LF causes would be expected to reduce food intake. The present study tested whether LF affected psychological factors connected with eating behaviour and short-term food intake. Paired studies were carried out on seventeen healthy but overweight volunteers (ten male, seven female) with body mass indices of 24–34 kg/m2 who were non-restricted eaters. On one occasion (randomized) they took drinks of LF (300 ml each) at 09·05, 11·55 and 18·00 hours, and on the other they took placebo drinks. Subjective feelings were assessed by visual analogue scales. The amount of food consumed at an appetizing pre-selected meal presented at 12·15 hours was measured covertly. Food diaries were kept until 16·00 hours on the following day. The visual analogue scales indicated that LF reduced hunger and the amount of food desired, and increased fullness, all of which would be expected to cause a reduction in food intake. However, there were no differences in the amount or type of food eaten at the appetizing test-meal (6073 v. 5824 kJ, P = 0·41). Food eaten later in the day was significantly delayed by LF (7·0 v. 5·9 h, P = 0·030), and the amount tended to be reduced (4328 v. 5439 kJ, P = 0·088). The energy consumed on the following day also tended to be lower after LF (3802 v. 4737 kJ, P = 0·130). This suggests that gastric distension is a relatively unimportant influence on eating behaviour when non-restricted eaters are presented with an appetizing meal and that intestinal factors seem more important for prolonging satiety and reducing subsequent food intake.

Healthy pregnant women (n 23) were supplemented with fish-oil capsules (2·7 g n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids/d) from the 30th week of gestation until delivery. Subjects in a control group were either supplemented with olive-oil capsules (4 g/d, n 6) or received no supplementation (n 10). Fatty acid compositions of the phospholipids isolated from umbilical plasma and umbilical arterial and venous vessel walls were determined. Fatty acid compositions of maternal venous plasma phospholipids were determined as well. Maternal plasma phospholipids of the fish-oil-supplemented group contained more n-3 fatty acids and less n-6 fatty acids. Moreover, the amounts of the essential fatty acid deficiency markers Mead acid (20:3n-9) and Osbond acid (22:5n-6) were significantly lower. The extra amount of n-3 fatty acids consumed by the mothers resulted in higher contents of n-3 fatty acids, and of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) in particular, in the phospholipids of umbilical plasma and vessel walls. It is, indeed, possible to interfere with the docosahexaenoic acid status at birth: children born to mothers supplemented with fish oil in the last trimester of pregnancy start with a better docosahexaenoic acid status at birth, which may be beneficial to neonatal neurodevelopment.

The effects of intraduodenal and dietary lipid on alertness, mood and performance in a task requiring sustained attention were investigated in two studies. The first experiment compared the effect of duodenal infusion of either 100 g/l Intralipid (8·36 kJ/min) or isotonic saline (9 g NaCl/l) in paired studies carried out on two non-consecutive days on five male volunteers. Two consecutive 3 h infusions, one of lipid, the other saline, were given blind on each day using a crossover design. Analysis of variance indicated that lipid significantly reduced alertness (P < 0·05) and affected the speed and accuracy of performance in a sustained attention task (P < 0·05). A second experiment compared the effects on eight male volunteers of two isoenergetic lunches of similar appearance, taste and protein content but differing fat and carbohydrate (CHO) contents (fat energy:CHO, 64:18 v. 7:76). Alertness was lower (P < 0·05) and responses to stimuli in a sustained attention task were slower after the high-fat meal than after the low-fat meal (P < 0·05). In conclusion, infusion of lipid into the small intestine, and the substitution of fat for carbohydrate while keeping energy and protein constant in a lunch, both cause an enhanced postprandial decline in alertness and concentration. This may be related to the presence of lipid in the small intestine.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) reduce colonic proliferation and exert a mild laxative effect. We have studied the effect of the highly unsaturatede icosapentaenoic acid ethyl ester (EPA-EE) on the growth and metabolism of colonic bacteria in vitro, and in vivo. For the in vitro study, growth was assessed by viable counts. Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron was significantly inhibited in anaerobic media containing EPA-EE at concentrations > 7 g/I. Escherichia coli was apparently resistant even at 100 g/I. For the in vivo study, ten healthy volunteers ingested 18 g EPA-EE/d for 7 d. Stool frequency, 24 h stool weight and whole-gut transit time were assessed together with breath H2 and 14CO2 excretion following oral ingestion of 15 g lactitol labelled with 0·18 MBq [14C]lactitol. The area under the breath-H2-time curve was significantly reduced by EPA-EE, from a control value of 690·3 (SE 94·2) ppm.h to 449·5 (SE 91·7) ppm.h. Percentage dose of 14CO2 excreted, total stool weight and whole-gut transit time were unaltered, being respectively 24 (SE 2)%, 281 (SE 66) g and 45 (SE 4) h with EPA-EE v. control values of 27 (SE 1)%, 300 (SE 89) g and 42 (SE 5) h. It is concluded that dietary supplementation with EPA-EE reduces breath H2 excretion without apparently impairing overall colonic carbohydrate fermentation. The observed reduction may reflect utilization of H2 to hydrogenate the five double bonds of EPA-EE.

There is limited information relating Ca intake to bone and height acquisition among Oriental children who consume little or even no milk. The present controlled study investigated the acquisition of bone mass and height of Chinese children with an initial Ca intake of approximately 567 mg/d who were supplemented to about 800 mg/d. Eighty-four 7-year-old Hong Kong Chinese children underwent an 18-month randomized, double-blind, controlled Ca-supplementation trial. The children were randomized to receive either 300 mg elemental Ca or a placebo tablet daily. Bone mass of the distal one-third radius was measured by single-photon absorptiometry, lumbar spine and femoral neck were determined using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Measurements were repeated 6-monthly. Baseline serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol concentration and physical activity were also assessed. Baseline Ca intakes of the study group and controls were respectively 571 (SD 326) and 563 (SD 337) mg/d. There were no significant differences in baseline serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol concentration (P = 0·71) and physical activity (P = 0·36) between the study and control groups. After 18 months the study group had significantly greater increases in lumbar-spinal bone mineral content (20·9 v. 16. 34%; P = 0·035), lumbar-spinal area (11·16 v. 8·71%; P = 0middot;049), and a moderately greater increment in areal bone mineral density of the radius (7·74 0·600%; P = 0.081) when compared with the controls. The results confirm a positive effect of Ca on bone mass of the spine and radius but no effects on femoral-neck and height increase. A longer trial is warranted to confirm a positive Ca effect during childhood that may modify future peak bone mass.