The proportion of metal ions in a high power impulse magnetron sputtering discharge is key information for the potential development of new materials and new layer architectures deposited by this technique. This paper aims to measure this proportion by using a homemade system consisting of a quartz crystal microbalance and a grid energy analyser assembly. Such a system yields relevant results on the composition of the post-discharge depending on the nature of the gas (Ar, Kr, Xe) and the target materials (Pt, Pd, Au, $\text{Pt}_{50}\text{Au}_{50}$ and $\text{Pt}_{5}\text{Pd}_{95}$). In our conditions, the highest proportion of metal ions in the post-discharge are obtained by using Ar gas and reaches 10 %, 12 %, 50 %, 19 % and 88 % for Pt, Au, Pd, $\text{Pt}_{50}\text{Au}_{50}$ and $\text{Pt}_{5}\text{Pd}_{95}$ targets, respectively.

Propagation of radio emission in a pulsar magnetosphere is reviewed. The effects of polarization transfer, induced scattering and reprocessing to high energies are analysed with a special emphasis on the implications for the gamma-ray pulsars. The possibilities of the pulsar plasma diagnostics based on the observed radio pulse characteristics are also outlined. As an example, the plasma number density profiles obtained from the polarization data for the Vela and the gamma-ray millisecond pulsars J1446-4701, J1939+2134 and J1744-1134 are presented. The number densities derived tend to be the highest/lowest when the radio pulse leads/lags the gamma-ray peak. In the PSR J1939+2134, the plasma density profiles for the main pulse and interpulse appear to fit exactly the same curve, testifying to the origin of both radio components above the same magnetic pole and their propagation through the same plasma flow in opposite directions. The millisecond radio pulse components exhibiting flat position angle curves are suggested to result from the induced scattering of the main pulse by the same particles that generate gamma rays. This is believed to underlie the wide-sense radio/gamma-ray correlation in the millisecond pulsars. The radio quietness of young gamma-ray pulsars is attributed to resonant absorption, whereas the radio loudness to the radio beam escape through the periphery of the open field line tube.

The fundamentals of stereoscopy and their application to dusty plasmas are described. It is shown that stereoscopic methods allow us to measure the three-dimensional particle positions and trajectories with high spatial and temporal resolution. The underlying technical implications are presented and requirements and limitations are discussed. The stereoscopic method is demonstrated for dust particles in dust-density waves under microgravity conditions.

Pulsar-wind nebulae emit an extremely broad spectrum of continuum radiation, from low radio frequencies to TeV gamma rays. The part of the spectral energy distribution (SED) from radio through MeV gamma rays is due to synchrotron emission from a distribution of relativistic electrons (or pairs) which can be described by one or more power laws. This spectrum exhibits that particle energy distribution, responsible also for the higher-energy (GeV–TeV) part of the SED, due to inverse-Compton upscattering of one of three photon fields: the synchrotron spectrum, the cosmic microwave background, or ambient optical/infrared photons. However, in a few sources, primary hadrons may produce GeV–TeV gamma rays through the decay of neutral pions produced in inelastic cosmic-ray collisions with thermal gas. The higher-energy end of the particle spectrum, producing synchrotron photons above approximately 10 keV, holds clues to the particle acceleration process. However, its detailed study requires imaging spectroscopy in this energy range, not available until the NuSTAR mission beginning in 2012, which performs true imaging between 3 and 78 keV with ${\sim}1^{\prime }$ angular resolution. I review NuSTAR observations of the first three pulsar-wind nebulae (PWNe) to be examined in this way: the Crab Nebula, G21.5–0.9 and MSH 15–52. All three show spectral structure not previously known: spectral steepening in certain locations and overall source shrinkage with increasing photon energy. The Crab Nebula has different shrinkage rates along the torus and along the northwest counter-jet. The latter rate is similar to that for both the other sources (FWHM $\propto E^{m}$ with $m\sim -0.2$). I discuss implications of these results for models of particle transport in PWNe.

Reduced models are derived for a strongly magnetized collisionless plasma at scales which are large relative to the electron thermal gyroradius and in two asymptotic regimes. One corresponds to cold ions and the other to far sub-ion scales. By including the electron pressure dynamics, these models improve the Hall reduced magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and the kinetic Alfvén wave model of Boldyrev et al. (2013 Astrophys. J., vol. 777, 2013, p. 41), respectively. We show that the two models can be obtained either within the gyrofluid formalism of Brizard (Phys. Fluids, vol. 4, 1992, pp. 1213–1228) or as suitable weakly nonlinear limits of the finite Larmor radius (FLR)–Landau fluid model of Sulem and Passot (J. Plasma Phys., vol 81, 2015, 325810103) which extends anisotropic Hall MHD by retaining low-frequency kinetic effects. It is noticeable that, at the far sub-ion scales, the simplifications originating from the gyroaveraging operators in the gyrofluid formalism and leading to subdominant ion velocity and temperature fluctuations, correspond, at the level of the FLR–Landau fluid, to cancellation between hydrodynamic contributions and ion finite Larmor radius corrections. Energy conservation properties of the models are discussed and an explicit example of a closure relation leading to a model with a Hamiltonian structure is provided.

Pulsar electrodynamics is reviewed emphasizing the role of the inductive electric field in an oblique rotator and the incomplete screening of its parallel component by charges, leaving ‘gaps’ with $E_{\Vert }\neq 0$. The response of the plasma leads to a self-consistent electric field that complements the inductive electric field with a potential field leading to an electric drift and a polarization current associated with the total field. The electrodynamic models determine the charge density, ${\it\rho}$, and the current density, $\boldsymbol{J}$; charge starvation refers to situations where the plasma cannot supply ${\it\rho}$, resulting in a gap and associated particle acceleration and pair creation. It is pointed out that a form of current starvation also occurs implying a new class of gaps. The properties of gaps are discussed, emphasizing that static models are unstable, the role of large-amplitude longitudinal waves and the azimuthal dependence that arises across a gap in an oblique rotator. Wave dispersion in a pulsar plasma is reviewed briefly, emphasizing its role in radio emission. Pulsar radio emission mechanisms are reviewed, and it is suggested that the most plausible is a form of plasma emission.

Dispersion characteristics have been analysed for field-aligned electron–cyclotron waves (also known as right-hand polarized waves, extraordinary waves or whistlers) in a cylindrical magnetic mirror plasma including electrons with anisotropic temperature. It is shown that the instability of these waves is possible only in the range below the minimal electron–cyclotron frequency, which is much lower than the gyrotron frequency used for electron–cyclotron resonance power input into the plasma, under the condition where the perpendicular temperature of the resonant electrons is larger than their parallel temperature. The growth rates of whistler instability in the two magnetized plasma models, where the stationary magnetic field is either uniform or has a non-uniform magnetic mirror configuration, are compared.

We consider the relativistic ion-acoustic mode in a plasma composed by cold ions and an ultra-degenerate electron gas, described the relativistic Vlasov–Poisson system. A critical examination of popular fluid models for relativistic ion-acoustic waves is provided, comparing kinetic and hydrodynamic results. The kinetic linear dispersion relation is shown to be reproduced by the rigorous relativistic hydrodynamic equations with Chandrasekhar’s equation of state.

The measurement of vacuum polarisation effects, in particular vacuum birefringence, using combined optical and X-ray laser pulses are now actively pursued. Here we briefly examine the feasibility of two alternative set-ups. The first utilises an alternative target, namely a converging dipole pulse, and the second uses an alternative probe, namely the synchrotron-like emission from highly energetic particles, themselves interacting with a laser pulse. The latter set-up has been proposed for experiments at ELI-NP.

We review our high-time-resolution radio observations of the Crab pulsar and compare our data to a variety of models for the emission physics. The Main Pulse and the Low Frequency Interpulse come from regions somewhere in the high-altitude emission zones (caustics) that also produce pulsed X-ray and ${\it\gamma}$-ray emission. Although no emission model can fully explain these two components, the most likely models suggest they arise from a combination of beam-driven instabilities, coherent charge bunching and strong electromagnetic turbulence. Because the radio power fluctuates on a wide range of time scales, we know the emission zones are patchy and dynamic. It is tempting to invoke unsteady pair creation in high-altitude gaps as the source of the variability, but current pair cascade models cannot explain the densities required by any of the likely models. It is harder to account for the mysterious High Frequency Interpulse. We understand neither its origin within the magnetosphere nor the striking emission bands in its dynamic spectrum. The most promising models are based on analogies with solar zebra bands, but they require unusual plasma structures which are not part of our standard picture of the magnetosphere. We argue that radio observations can reveal much about the upper magnetosphere, but work is required before the models can address all of the data.

For a Weibel shock to form, two plasma shells have to collide and trigger the Weibel instability. At saturation, this instability generates magnetic filaments in the overlapping region with peak field $B_{f}$. In the absence of an external guiding magnetic field, these filaments can block the incoming flow, initiating the shock formation, if their size is larger than the Larmor radius of the incoming particles in the peak field. Here we show that this result still holds in the presence of an external magnetic field $B_{0}$, provided it is not too high. Yet, for $B_{0}\gtrsim B_{f}/2$, the filaments become unable to stop any particle, regardless of its initial velocity.

A particle-in-cell (PIC) simulation study of the charging processes of spherical dust grains in a magnetized plasma environment is presented. Different magnetic field strengths with corresponding electron/ion gyration radii of smaller, the same or larger size than the grain radius and the plasma Debye length are examined. The magnetized plasma is created by overlapping the simulation box with a homogeneous, constant magnetic field. The charging currents are significantly reduced in the presence of a magnetic field, resulting in a more negative grain floating potential. Indeed, the most probable electron gyration radius is always smaller than that of ions in a Maxwellian plasma: however, it is demonstrated that the situation of simultaneous magnetized electron but an unmagnetized ion charging current never exists. The simulation results do not fit with a modified orbital motion limited (OML) theory approach for this situation, since the ion current is significantly reduced due to the increase of the gyration radius in the potential field of the dust grain. For very small gyration radii, the simulation results are in good agreement with a modified OML approach for both magnetized electron and ion charging currents.

Neutron stars are fascinating astrophysical objects immersed in strong gravitational and electromagnetic fields, at the edge of our current theories. These stars manifest themselves mostly as pulsars, emitting a timely very stable and regular electromagnetic signal. Even though discovered almost fifty years ago, they still remain mysterious compact stellar objects. In this review, we summarize the most fundamental theoretical aspects of neutron star magnetospheres and winds. The main competing models explaining their radiative properties like multi-wavelength pulse shapes and spectra and the underlying physical processes such as pair creation and radiation mechanisms are scrutinized. A global but still rather qualitative picture slowly emerges thanks to recent advances in numerical simulations on the largest scales. However considerations about pulsar magnetospheres remain speculative. For instance, the exact composition of the magnetospheric plasma is not yet known. Is it solely filled with a mixture of $e^{\pm }$ leptons or does it contain a non-negligible fraction of protons and/or ions? Is it almost entirely filled or mostly empty except for some small anecdotal plasma filled regions? Answers to these questions will strongly direct the description of the magnetosphere to seemingly contradictory results leading sometimes to inconsistencies. Nevertheless, accounts are given as to the latest developments in the theory of pulsar magnetospheres and winds, the existence of a possible electrosphere and physical insight obtained from related observational signatures of multi-wavelength pulsed emission.

We want to understand what drives magnetospheric dissipation in the equatorial current sheet. Numerical simulations have limitations and, unless we have a clear a priori understanding of the physical processes involved, their results can be misleading. We argue that the canonical pulsar magnetosphere is strongly dissipative and that a large fraction (up to 30–40 % in an aligned rotator) of the spindown luminosity is redirected towards the equator where it is dissipated into particle acceleration and emission of radiation. We show that this is due to the failure of the equatorial electric current to cross the Y-point at the tip of the corotating zone.

When one takes into account the presence of virtual charged states in the quantum vacuum, a nonlinear self-interaction can arise in the propagation of electromagnetic fields. This self-interaction is often referred to as ‘real photon–photon scattering’. When the centre-of-mass energy of colliding photons is much lower than the rest energy of an electron–positron pair, this quantum effect can be included in the classical field equations of motion as a vacuum current and charge density using the Heisenberg–Euler Lagrangian. Using analytical and numerical methods for subcritical fields, the intrinsic solution to Maxwell’s equations has been found for counterpropagating probe and pump plane waves in the presence of vacuum four- and six-wave mixing. In the corresponding all-order solution for the scattered probe, a route to vacuum high-harmonic generation is identified in which a long phase length can compensate for the weakness of interacting fields. The resulting shocks in the probe carrier wave and envelope are studied for different parameter regimes and polarisation set-ups. In this special issue, we study two additional set-ups: that of a slowly varying single-cycle background to highlight the effect of an oscillating background on the probe harmonic spectrum, and that of a few-cycle probe to highlight the smoothing of the harmonic peaks produced by a wider spectrum of probe photons. We also correct sign errors in an earlier publication.

The dynamics of passage and capture into resonance of a distribution of particles driven by a chirped frequency perturbation is discussed. The resonant capture in this case involves crossing of the separatrix by individual particles and, therefore, the adiabatic theorem cannot be used in studying this problem no matter how slow the variation of the driving frequency is. It is shown that, if instead of analysing complicated single particle dynamics in passage through resonance, one considers the slow evolution of a whole distribution of initial conditions in phase space, the adiabaticity and phase space incompressibility arguments yield a solution to the resonant passage problem. This approach is illustrated in the case of an ensemble of electrons driven by a chirped frequency wave passing through Cherenkov resonances with the velocity distribution of electrons.

Formation of the streamer zone of a leader is an outstanding problem in the physics of electric discharges which is relevant to laboratory leaders, as well as to the leaders formed by lightning. Despite substantial progress in the theoretical understanding of this complicated phenomenon, significant puzzles, such as the low propagation velocity of a leader compared to the fast streamers, remain. The objective of this paper is to present 2-D plasma simulations of the formation and propagation of the streamer zone of a leader. In these simulations we will generate a group of streamers that propagate in a discharge gap while interacting with each other. It is shown that interaction between the streamers significantly reduces their propagation velocity. This explains why the leader, which consists of many streamers, is much slower than a single streamer formed in the same discharge gap. It is shown that the mean velocity suppression of the group of streamers is determined by the inter-streamer distance. The critical value of the packing factor of the streamers at which the interactions between them can be neglected, and thus the discussed process can be treated as caused by a single streamer, is obtained.

In this paper, the mode density, coupling coefficient, eigenfrequencies, quality factors and starting currents of a 170 GHz cylindrical and confocal gyrotron are studied based on the linear theory. Results show that the mode density in the confocal cavity greatly decrease due to the diffraction properties. Modes in the confocal cavity have lower quality factors than the modes in cylindrical cavity, hence the starting currents are higher than the latter. The confocal gyrotron is more stable than the cylindrical gyrotron when operating at large current. Meanwhile, through altering the mirror width, quality factors together with the starting current of the confocal modes are adjustable.