To review research addressing the polymicrobial aetiology of otitis media in Indigenous Australian children in order to identify research gaps and inform best practice in effective prevention strategies and therapeutic interventions.

Literature review.

Studies of aspirated middle-ear fluid represented a minor component of the literature reviewed. Most studies relied upon specimens from middle-ear discharge or the nasopharynx. Culture-based middle-ear discharge studies have found that non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae and Streptococcus pneumoniae predominate, with Moraxella catarrhalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pyogenes isolated in a lower proportion of samples. Alloiococcus otitidis was detected in a number of studies; however, its role in otitis media pathogenesis remains controversial. Nasopharyngeal colonisation is a risk factor for otitis media in Indigenous infants, and bacterial load of otopathogens in the nasopharynx can predict the ear state of Indigenous children.

Most studies have used culture-based methods and specimens from middle-ear discharge or the nasopharynx. Findings from these studies are consistent with international literature, but reliance on culture may incorrectly characterise the microbiology of this condition. Advances in genomic technologies are now providing microbiologists with the ability to analyse the entire mixed bacterial communities (‘microbiomes’) of samples obtained from Indigenous children with otitis media.

The initial assessment of epistaxis patients commonly includes: first aid measures, observations, focused history taking, and clinical examinations and investigations. This systematic review aimed to identify evidence that informs how the initial assessment of these patients should be conducted.

A systematic review of the literature was performed using a standardised methodology and search strategy.

Seventeen articles were included. Factors identified were: co-morbidity, intrinsic patient factors, coagulation screening and ice pack use. Hypertension and anticoagulant use were demonstrated to adversely affect outcomes. Coagulation screening is useful in patients on anticoagulant medication. Four studies could not be accessed. Retrospective methodology and insufficient statistical analysis limit several studies.

Sustained ambulatory hypertension, anticoagulant therapy and posterior bleeding may be associated with recurrent epistaxis, and should be recorded. Oral ice pack use may decrease severity and can be considered as first aid. Coagulation studies are appropriate for patients with a history of anticoagulant use or bleeding diatheses.

Left- or right-handedness is a common human trait, and it has been previously reported that human nasal airflow dominance correlates with hand dominance. Any relationship between hand dominance and nasal airflow dominance would be unusual. This study aimed to measure nasal airflow and look for any relationship to handedness.

The modified Glatzel mirror was used to record the dominant nasal passage at 15-minute intervals over a 6-hour period in 29 healthy participants consisting of 15 left-handers and 14 right-handers.

In left-handers, the percentage of time that the left nasal passage was dominant ranged from 0 to 100 per cent. In right-handers, the percentage of time that the right nasal passage was dominant ranged from 4.2 to 95.8 per cent. No correlation between nasal airflow dominance and hand dominance was identified.

The results do not support the hypothesis that nasal airflow and handedness are related.

Atlanto-axial rotatory fixation is a persistent deformity of the C1–2 vertebral relationship caused by subluxation of the articular surfaces, and can occur after positioning for ENT procedures where the head is rotated – for example to access the ear or posterior triangle of the neck. If promptly recognised, it can usually be managed successfully with conservative methods, without long-lasting sequelae, but delayed or inappropriate management may lead to permanent neck deformity, neurological problems and pain.

Case review.

Two children with atlanto-axial rotatory fixation following ENT surgery; one child was referred early and managed successfully, and one had delayed referral resulting in permanent severe positional deformity.

Atlanto-axial rotatory fixation is easily missed; there are significant clinical and medicolegal implications if it is not promptly recognised. A suggested management algorithm is presented.

Bone-anchored hearing aids improve hearing for patients for whom conventional behind-the-ear aids are problematic. However, uptake of bone-anchored hearing aids is low and it is important to understand why this is the case.

A narrative review was conducted. Studies examining why people accept or decline bone-anchored hearing aids and satisfaction levels of people with bone-anchored hearing aids were reviewed.

Reasons for declining bone-anchored hearing aids included limited perceived benefits, concerns about surgery, aesthetic concerns and treatment cost. No studies providing in-depth analysis of the reasons for declining or accepting bone-anchored hearing aids were identified. Studies of patient satisfaction showed that most participants reported benefits with bone-anchored hearing aids. However, most studies used cross-sectional and/or retrospective designs and only included people with bone-anchored hearing aids.

Important avenues for further research are in-depth qualitative research designed to fully understand the decision-making process for bone-anchored hearing aids and rigorous quantitative research comparing satisfaction of people who receive bone-anchored hearing aids with those who receive alternative (or no) treatments.

Oropharyngeal cancer is increasing in prevalence in the UK and this is thought to be due to the emergence of disease related to human papilloma virus.

A literature review was conducted on the diagnosis and latest management of oropharyngeal cancer.

In non-smokers, human papilloma virus related disease is thought to have better outcomes, but this casts doubt on previous research which did not stratify patients according to human papilloma virus status. However, this theory provides a route for researchers to risk stratify and de-escalate treatments, and hence reduce treatment burden. In addition, the emergence of minimally invasive transoral techniques allows surgeons to remove large tumours without many of the side effects associated with radical (chemo)radiotherapy.

The emergence of human papilloma virus related disease and minimally invasive techniques have led the clinical and academic community to reconsider how oropharyngeal cancer is managed. Comparative and risk-stratification trials are urgently required and ongoing.

Molecular categorisation may explain the wide variation in the clinical characteristics of juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma.

Variations in molecular markers in juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma in an Indian population were investigated and compared with global reports.

Variable molecular marker expression was demonstrated at the regional and global levels. A wide variation in molecular characteristics is evident. Molecular data have been reported for only 11 countries, indicating a clear geographical bias. Only 58 markers have been studied, and most are yet to be validated.

Research into the molecular epidemiology of juvenile nasopharyngeal angiofibroma is still in its infancy. Although the molecular variation is not well understood, data obtained so far have prompted important research questions. Hence, multicentre collaborative molecular studies are needed to establish the aetiopathogenesis and establish molecular surrogates for clinical characteristics.

Inverted papilloma is the most common benign tumour affecting the nose. There is a high rate of recurrence and a potential of malignant transformation. This review article aimed to identify the best available management of this pathology today.

A systematic review of the current English-language literature was performed. Only original articles with a minimum follow up of one year and an average follow up of two years were included.

A total of 1385 patients from 16 case series were identified. The total recurrence rate for all patients was 11.5 per cent. Significantly lower recurrence rates were found for procedures using an attachment-oriented excision (recurrence of 6.9 per cent; p = 0.0001) and utilising frozen sections (recurrence of 7.0 per cent; p = 0.0001).

There is a general trend towards endoscopic surgery. There may be some benefit to the use of attachment-oriented surgery and frozen sections. Multi-centred randomised controlled trials are required.

Olfactory disorders increase with age and often affect elderly people who have pre-dementia or dementia. Despite the frequent occurrence of olfactory changes at the early stages of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, olfactory disorders are rarely assessed in daily clinical practice, mainly due to a lack of standardised assessment tools. The aims of this review were to (1) summarise the existing literature on olfactory disorders in ageing populations and patients with neurodegenerative disorders; (2) present the strengths and weaknesses of current olfactory disorder assessment tools; and (3) discuss the benefits of developing specific olfactory tests for neurodegenerative diseases.

A systematic review was performed of literature published between 2000 and 2015 addressing olfactory disorders in elderly people with or without Alzheimer's disease or other related disorders to identify the main tools currently used for olfactory disorder assessment.

Olfactory disorder assessment is a promising method for improving both the early and differential diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. However, the current lack of consensus on which tests should be used does not permit the consistent integration of olfactory disorder assessment into clinical settings.

Otolaryngologists are encouraged to use olfactory tests in older adults to help predict the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Olfactory tests should be specifically adapted to assess olfactory disorders in Alzheimer's disease patients.

This review examined the efficacy of intranasal corticosteroids for improving adenotonsillar hypertrophy.

The related literature was searched using PubMed and Proquest Central databases.

Adenotonsillar hypertrophy causes mouth breathing, nasal congestion, hyponasal speech, snoring, obstructive sleep apnoea, chronic sinusitis and recurrent otitis media. Adenoidal hypertrophy results in the obstruction of nasal passages and Eustachian tubes, and blocks the clearance of nasal mucus. Adenotonsillar hypertrophy and obstructive sleep apnoea are associated with increased expression of various mediators of inflammatory responses in the tonsils, and respond to anti-inflammatory agents such as corticosteroids. Topical nasal steroids most likely affect the anatomical component by decreasing inspiratory upper airway resistance at the nasal, adenoidal or tonsillar levels. Corticosteroids, by their lympholytic or anti-inflammatory effects, might reduce adenotonsillar hypertrophy. Intranasal corticosteroids reduce cellular proliferation and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in a tonsil and adenoid mixed-cell culture system.

Intranasal corticosteroids have been used in adenoidal hypertrophy and adenotonsillar hypertrophy patients, decreasing rates of surgery for adenotonsillar hypertrophy.

Pharyngoesophageal diverticula have many subtypes, with Zenker's diverticulum being the most common. First described in 1983, a Killian–Jamieson diverticulum is an outpouching in the anterolateral wall at the pharyngoesophageal junction. This is located inferiorly to the cricopharyngeus muscle, unlike Zenker's diverticula which occur superiorly. Killian–Jamieson diverticula are rare and are commonly misdiagnosed as Zenker's diverticula. Less than 30 reports of Killian–Jamieson diverticula have been described in the literature.

A 69-year-old man presented with a 2-year symptomatic history, and was found to have simultaneous Zenker's diverticulum and Killian–Jamieson diverticulum. He was treated successfully with open surgical excision of both pouches.

Zenker's diverticulum and Killian–Jamieson diverticulum are diagnosed using radiological studies and endoscopy. Their differentiation is important, as surgical management differs. This paper reviews the literature on Killian–Jamieson diverticula and the management options available.

Cauterisation techniques are commonly used and widely accepted for the management of epistaxis. This review assesses which methods of intranasal cautery should be endorsed as optimum treatment on the basis of benefits, risks, patient tolerance and economic assessment.

A systematic review of the literature was performed using a standardised methodology and search strategy.

Eight studies were identified: seven prospective controlled trials and one randomised controlled trial. Pooling of data was possible from 3 studies, yielding a total of 830 patients. Significantly lower re-bleed rates were identified (p < 0.01) using electrocautery (14.5 per cent) when compared to chemical cautery (35.1 per cent). No evidence suggested that electrocautery was associated with more adverse events or discomfort. Limited evidence supported the use of a vasoconstrictor agent and operating microscope during the procedure. The included studies had considerable heterogeneity in terms of design and outcome measures.

Consistent evidence suggests that electrocautery has higher success rates than chemical cautery, and is not associated with increased complications or patient discomfort. Lower quality evidence suggests that electrocautery reduces costs and duration of hospital stay.

To evaluate the effect of pre- and post-admission antibiotic treatment in paediatric acute mastoiditis.

Retrospective study.

Eighty-eight children with acute mastoiditis, from 2003 to 2012, were studied to investigate the effect of antibiotic therapy on short and long-term sequelae.

The median period of antibiotic therapy immediately following hospital discharge was 10 days (range, 5–49 days; standard deviation = 7.46). There were no sequelae within the fortnight following antibiotic therapy completion, but 14 of 40 patients had significant sequelae thereafter, including recurrent otorrhoea, acute otitis media and ventilation tube insertion requirement. Complication rates were significantly higher among patients who had pre-admission antibiotic therapy (52 per cent), compared to patients previously untreated (27 per cent).

Paediatric acute mastoiditis patients treated with antibiotic therapy prior to admission are at higher risk for complication development. The advised time period for oral antibiotic therapy following hospital discharge remains as 10 days in all cases of uncomplicated acute mastoiditis.

First-on-call ENT cover is often provided by junior doctors with limited ENT experience; yet, they may have to manage life-threatening emergencies. An intensive 1-day simulation course was developed to teach required skills to junior doctors.

A prospective, single-blinded design was used. Thirty-seven participants rated their confidence before the course, immediately following the course and after a two-month interval. Blinded assessors scored participant performance in two video-recorded simulated scenarios before and after the course.

Participant self-rated confidence was increased in the end-of-course survey (score of 27.5 vs 53.0; p < 0.0001), and this was maintained two to four months after the course (score of 50.5; p < 0.0001). Patient assessment and management in video-recorded emergency scenarios was significantly improved following course completion (score of 9.75 vs 18.75; p = 0.0093).

This course represents an effective method of teaching ENT emergency management to junior doctors. ENT induction programmes benefit from the incorporation of a simulation component.

The advent of supraglottoplasty clearly has transformed the surgical management of severe laryngomalacia. The condition, however, generally runs a milder course, with spontaneous resolution the norm.

To identify gaps in the knowledge and identify topics for future study.

Systematic review of the literature.

The literature suggests that there is a range of abnormalities leading to the typical collapsing upper airway, and that neurological disease, other airway abnormalities, syndromes and gastroesophageal reflux all contribute to disease severity and influence outcomes. The procedures involved in supraglottoplasty are rarely specified, the indications for surgery are vaguely defined and the role of medical therapy is unclear.

Every review article or survey of opinion suggests that there is still a marked variation in individual practice and a lack of consensus.

The pyriform aperture comprises the central area of facial bone structure. It is formed by the free corners of the nasal bone and the frontal processes of the maxillae, which articulate with each other at the nasomaxillary suture lines. Congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis might be linked to various craniofacial problems. This review presents all aspects of pyriform aperture stenosis and enlargement.

A literature search was conducted. Pyriform aperture definition, nasal development, congenital nasal pyriform aperture stenosis and pyriform aperture enlargement were reviewed.

One of the most common abnormalities is holoprosencephaly, which is a midline developmental deficiency that may also be present in combination with facial clefting. The aetiology of nasal pyriform aperture stenosis remains unclear. When diagnosed, the choice of treatment is between non-surgical and operative methods, depending on the seriousness of the problem. Provided the sufferer can maintain a secure air passage with the help of specialised medical procedures and respiratory tract adjuvants, operative therapy may be delayed.

The operative outcomes are extremely good, and the prognosis relies mainly on coexisting neural and endocrine problems. This paper evaluates the nasal pyriform aperture in detail.

Several risk factors for depression in patients with oropharyngeal cancer have been determined. However, it is unknown whether human papillomavirus associated oropharyngeal cancer, which has a distinct clinico-demographic profile, modulates this risk.

A retrospective analysis was conducted of patients with oropharyngeal cancer. These patients had completed a 10-item depression screening questionnaire before receiving treatment for their disease from 2011 to 2014. Associations between patient or disease characteristics and depression screening questionnaire results were investigated.

The study comprised 69 patients, 31 (44.9 per cent) of whom screened positive for depression. There were no significant differences in distributions of clinico-demographic or histopathological characteristics, including human papillomavirus tumour status, by depression screen result.

This population has a high risk for depression, but no obvious risk factors, including human papillomavirus tumour status, were associated with an elevated risk. This inability to risk-stratify patients by clinico-demographic or disease characteristics emphasises the importance of regular depression screening for all patients in this population.

Piezoelectric technology has existed for many years as a surgical tool for precise removal of soft tissue and bone. The existing literature regarding its use specifically for otolaryngology, and head and neck surgery was reviewed.

The databases Medline, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed, Embase and Cambridge Scientific Abstracts were searched. Studies were selected and reviewed based on relevance.

Sixty studies were identified and examined for evidence of benefits and disadvantages of piezoelectric surgery and its application in otolaryngology. The technique was compared with traditional surgical methods, in terms of intra-operative bleeding, histology, learning curve, operative time and post-operative pain.

Piezoelectric technology has been successfully employed, particularly in otology and skull base surgery, where its specific advantages versus traditional drills include a lack of ‘blunting’ and tissue selectivity. Technical advantages include ease of use, a short learning curve and improved visibility. Its higher cost warrants consideration given that clinically significant improvements in operative time and morbidity have not yet been proven. Further studies may define the evolving role of piezoelectric surgery in otolaryngology, and head and neck surgery.

There has been a shift towards conservative management of penetrating neck trauma in selected patients.

A retrospective case note review of the management of penetrating neck trauma (2007–2013) was undertaken at our large teaching hospital and compared against best-evidenced practice.

Sixty-three patients were admitted over six years. The incidence of penetrating neck trauma is reducing, contrary to our belief. Most cases were knife inflicted (33 out of 63), and of these most were attempted suicide. There was a high rate of negative findings for neck explorations under general anaesthesia (18 out of 22). Only nine cases had justification for general anaesthesia exploration according to best practice.

The rate of neck explorations under general anaesthesia has dramatically fallen, in line with best practice. The need for operative intervention in patients with penetration of the aerodigestive tract or a major vascular injury should be based on clinical features, and these have been shown to be reliable indicators prior to open exploration.