Nearly 100 days of hourly glacier motion, hydrology and hydrochemistry measurements on Kennicott Glacier, Alaska, USA, demonstrate the complicated relationship between water and motion at the glacier bed. Our observations capture the transient glacier response to seasonal and daily melt cycles, and to a jökulhlaup that prompts a sixfold increase in glacier speed. Sliding is promoted whenever the water inputs to the glacier exceed the capacity of the subglacial hydrologic system to transmit the water. Sensitivity of sliding to daily meltwater inputs varies strongly through the season, implying that the state of the hydrologic system governs the sensitivity of basal sliding. A numerical model constructed to explore these relationships reveals: the roles of the effective pressure; the exponent to which this is taken in the ‘sliding law’ (0.1 <γ< 0.6); glacier macroporosity (φ < 2%); and the ‘cavity-generating capacity’ of the glacier bed, which encapsulates the sizes and spacing of bed roughness elements. Temporal changes in the effective pressure associated with evolution of both water inputs and subglacial water transmission capacity can explain the varying strength of diurnal velocity fluctuations of Kennicott Glacier. Spatial patterns of glacier macroporosity and of basal roughness govern variation in sensitivity of sliding to water inputs.

Coverage of ice velocities in the central part of the Southern Alps, New Zealand, is obtained from feature tracking using repeat optical imagery in 2002 and 2006. Precise orthorectification, co-registration and correlation is carried out using the freely available software COSI-Corr. This analysis, combined with short times between image acquisitions, has enabled velocities to be captured even in the accumulation areas, where velocities are lowest and surface features ephemeral. The results indicate large velocities for mountain glaciers (i.e. up to ∼5 m d−1) as well as dynamic changes in some glaciers that have occurred between 2002 and 2006. For the steep and more responsive Fox and Franz Josef Glaciers the speed increased at the glacier snout during the advance period, while the low-angled and debris-covered Tasman Glacier showed no measurable velocity change. Velocity increases on the steeper glaciers are the result of an observed thickening and steepening of the glacier tongues as they moved from a retreat phase in 2002 to an advance phase in 2006. This contrasting behaviour is consistent with historic terminus position changes. The steeper glaciers have undergone several advance/retreat cycles during the observation period (1894 to present), while the low-angled glacier showed little terminus response until retreat resulting from the accelerating growth of a proglacial lake commenced in 1983.

Observations from satellite and airborne platforms are combined with model calculations to infer the nature and efficiency of basal melting of the Pine Island Glacier ice shelf, West Antarctica, by ocean waters. Satellite imagery shows surface features that suggest ice-shelf-wide changes to the ocean’s influence on the ice shelf as the grounding line retreated. Longitudinal profiles of ice surface and bottom elevations are analyzed to reveal a spatially dependent pattern of basal melt with an annual melt flux of 40.5 Gt a−1. One profile captures a persistent set of surface waves that correlates with quasi-annual variations of atmospheric forcing of Amundsen Sea circulation patterns, establishing a direct connection between atmospheric variability and sub-ice-shelf melting. Ice surface troughs are hydrostatically compensated by ice-bottom voids up to 150 m deep. Voids form dynamically at the grounding line, triggered by enhanced melting when warmer-than-average water arrives. Subsequent enlargement of the voids is thermally inefficient (4% or less) compared with an overall melting efficiency beneath the ice shelf of 22%. Residual warm water is believed to cause three persistent polynyas at the ice-shelf front seen in Landsat imagery. Landsat thermal imagery confirms the occurrence of warm water at the same locations.

Many marine-terminating glaciers draining the Greenland ice sheet have retreated over the past decade, yet the extent and magnitude of retreat relative to past variability is unknown. We measure changes in front positions of 210 marine-terminating glaciers using Landsat imagery spanning nearly four decades and compare decadal-scale rates of change with earlier observations. We find that 90% of the observed glaciers retreated between 2000 and 2010, approaching 100% in the northwest, with rapid retreat observed in all sectors of the ice sheet. The current retreat is accelerating and likely began between 1992 and 2000, coincident with the onset of warming, following glacier stability and minor advance during a mid-century cooling period. While it is clear an extensive retreat occurred in the early 20th century, a period of increasing air temperatures, a comparison of our results with historical observations provides evidence that the current retreat is more widespread. The onset of rapid retreat with warming relative to the slow and lagged advance with cooling suggests an asymmetry in the response of marine fronts to external forcing.

Determining a calving law valid for all glaciological and environmental regimes has proven to be a difficult problem in glaciology. For this reason, most models of the calving process are semi-empirical, with little connection to the underlying fracture processes. In this study, I introduce methods rooted in statistical physics to show how calving laws, valid for any glaciological domain, can emerge naturally as a large-spatial-scale/long-temporal-scale limit of an underlying continuous or discrete fracture process. An important element of the method developed here is that iceberg calving is treated as a stochastic process and that the probability an iceberg will detach in a given interval of time can be described by a probability distribution function. Using limiting assumptions about the underlying probability distribution, the theory is shown to be able to simulate a range of calving styles, including the sporadic detachment of large, tabular icebergs from ice tongues and ice shelves and the more steady detachment of smaller-sized bergs from tidewater/outlet glaciers. The method developed has the potential to provide a physical basis to include iceberg calving into numerical ice-sheet models that can be used to produce more realistic estimates of the glaciological contribution to sea-level rise.

We use European Space Agency Envisat data to present the first observational evidence that a Northern Hemisphere tsunami triggered Antarctic ice-shelf calving more than 13 000 km away. The Honshu tsunami of 11 March 2011 traversed the Pacific Ocean in <18 hours where it impinged on the Sulzberger Ice Shelf, resulting in the calving of 125 km2 of ice from a shelf front that had previously been stable for >46 years. This event further illustrates the growing evidence of ocean-wave impact on Antarctic calving and emphasizes the teleconnection between the Antarctic ice sheet and events as far away as the Northern Hemisphere.

The glaciers in the Melville Bay region of northwest Greenland have shown a mean retreat since the earliest observations at the beginning of the 20th century. The largest, Steenstrup Gletscher, has retreated ∼20 km, partly during the period of atmospheric cooling 1940–80. Melville Bay air-temperature observations starting in 1981 indicate a regional change of +0.20°C a−1. This exceeds the warming on the east coast of Greenland, confirming the west coast to be a region of relatively large change, also in a global perspective. The largest temperature increase is observed in the winter months (0.3–0.4°C a−1). Results from a 4 year (2004–08) net ablation record obtained by an automatic weather station (AWS) near the calving front of Steenstrup Gletscher show an ablation rate that is relatively low for a low-elevation position on the Greenland ice sheet (2.4 m ice equivalent per year). A first-order estimate from positive degree-day totals suggests that net ablation has roughly doubled since the 1980s. A surface energy and mass-balance model is applied to the Steenstrup AWS data to quantify the energy flux contributions to surface melt. Solar radiation is the main source for melt energy, but, due to shortwave radiation penetration into the ice, only one-third of the melt takes place at the glacier surface; nearly two-thirds occurs within the upper ice layers.

The role of basal melting within high-precipitation temperate glaciers represents a significant gap in understanding glacier melting processes. We use a basal melt equation to calculate geothermal and frictional heat-induced basal melt and develop an equation to calculate the rainfall-induced basal melt for Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand, a high-precipitation, temperate glacier. Additionally, we calculate basal melt due to heat dissipation within water and ice. Data collated from published information on glacier dynamics and climate station readings show that total basal melt contributes on average ∼2.50 m a−1 over the lower to mid-ablation zone (300–1500 m a.s.l.), which is equivalent to >10% of the total ablation for the glacier. This indicates that basal melting is an important component of mass balance for high-precipitation, temperate glaciers.

In a two-dimensional (plane strain) glacier domain, gravity-driven ice flow is balanced by basal drag and the resistance associated with longitudinal stress gradients. The plane strain Stokes model accommodates both these resistances, whereas several simpler models only account for basal drag. Solving the Stokes equations is numerically challenging and computationally expensive, but simpler models may lead to unrealistic dynamical behaviour. Here, we propose a factor which can be introduced in shear-deformational flow models to yield results comparable to those from the plane strain Stokes model. As this factor adapts simpler models to capture the effects of missing dynamics, i.e. longitudinal stress gradients, we refer to it as the longitudinal stress (L-)factor. We assess the usefulness of this factor for idealized domains with complex basal topography and evolving geometry. We apply the model to Haig Glacier, Canadian Rockies, in order to present an illustration of how simulations of glacier response to climate forcing can be improved through the introduction of the L-factor in a shear-deformational flow model.

We use optical (ASTER and Landsat) and radar (ERS-1 and ERS-2) satellite imagery to document changes in the Prince Gustav Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula, and its tributary glaciers before and after its January 1995 collapse. The satellite image record captures the transition from an ice-shelf glacier system to a tidewater glacial system and the subsequent rapid retreat and inferred ‘fatal’ negative mass balances that occur as lower glacier elevations lead to higher ablation and tidewater-style calving collapse. Pre-1995 images show that the central ice shelf was fed primarily by Sjögren Glacier flowing from the Antarctic Peninsula and by Röhss Glacier flowing from James Ross Island. Numerous structural discontinuities (rifts and crevasses) and melt ponds were present on the ice shelf before the collapse. After the ice shelf collapsed, Röhss Glacier retreated rapidly, becoming a tidewater glacier in 2002 and receding a total of ∼15 km between January 2001 and March 2009, losing >70% of its area. Topographic profiles of Röhss Glacier from ASTER-derived digital elevation models show a thinning of up to ∼150 m, and surface speeds increased up to ninefold (0.1–0.9 m d−1) over the same period. The rates of speed increase and elevation loss, however, are not monotonic; both rates slowed between late 2002 and 2005, accelerated in 2006 and slowed again in 2008–09. We conclude that tributary glaciers react to ice-shelf removal by rapid (if discontinuous) recession, and that the response of tidewater glaciers on the Antarctic Peninsula to ice-shelf removal occurs over timescales ranging from sub-annual to decadal.

The specific surface area (SSA), defined as the surface area of ice per unit mass, is an important variable characterizing the complex microstructure of snow. Its application range covers the physical evolution of snow (metamorphism), photochemistry and optical and microwave remote sensing. This paper presents a new device, POSSSUM (Profiler Of Snow Specific Surface area Using SWIR reflectance Measurement), designed to allow the rapid acquisition of SSA profiles down to ∼20 m depth and with an effective vertical resolution of 10–20 mm. POSSSUM is based on the infrared (IR) reflectance technique: A laser diode operating at 1310 nm illuminates the snow at nadir incidence angle along the face of a drilled hole. The reflected radiance is measured at three zenith angles (20°, 40° and 60°) each for two azimuth angles (0° and 180°). A second laser operating at a shorter wavelength (635 nm), which is almost insensitive to SSA, allows the distance to the snow face to be estimated. The reflected IR radiance and the distance are combined to estimate bidirectional reflectances. These reflectances are converted into hemispherical reflectances and in turn into SSA using a theoretical formulation based on an asymptotic solution of the radiative transfer equation. The evaluation and validation of POSSSUM’s SSA measurements took place in spring 2009 in the French Alps. The new method was compared with the methane adsorption technique and DUFISSS, another well-validated instrument based on the IR technique. The overall measurement error is in the range 10–15%.

Acoustic sub-bottom profiler surveys on the northeast Antarctic Peninsula shelf indicate that parts of the seabed are underlain by an acoustically transparent layer that is thin on the inner shelf and becomes thicker and more extensive towards the outer shelf. Sedimentological and geophysical data are combined to construct a bed model where streaming ice flow, by both deformation and basal sliding, took place within cross-shelf troughs. The model suggests only limited deformation contributed to fast flow on the inner shelf, i.e. in the onset zone of ice streaming, where the bed was predominantly underlain by a stiff till. Thus, fast ice flow in this area might have been by basal sliding, with deformation confined to discontinuous patches of soft till <40 cm thick. Towards the middle and outer shelf, extensive, thick sequences of soft till suggest a change in the dominant subglacial process towards widespread deformation. This downstream change from basal sliding to subglacial deformation is manifest in the transition from stiff-till dominance to soft-till dominance, while a downstream increase in ice flow velocity is evident from the complex geomorphic imprint on the inner shelf evolving to the more restricted set of bedforms on the outer shelf.

The diffusion of stable water isotopes in snow was measured in two controlled laboratory experiments. Two batches of snow of different isotopic composition were stacked alternately with varying layer thicknesses. The stack was stored in a freezer room at constant temperature for several months, and sampled at regular intervals to analyse the diffusion. Measured isotope profiles were fitted to a theoretical model with diffusion length as the fit parameter. In the first experiment, we observed a difference in diffusion rates between layers of different thicknesses, which is likely caused by layers of snow not being in proper contact with each other. In the second experiment we found very good agreement between measurements and model results. The measured diffusivity is compared with theory, in which we mainly focus on the temperature dependence of the ice–vapour fractionation factors. This temperature dependence is slightly different for the different isotopes of water, which leads to a difference in diffusion rates. We illustrate how our set-up can be used to measure the ratio between ice–vapour fractionation factors of oxygen-18 and deuterium, which determine the relation between the difference in diffusion and the firn temperature.

An unexpectedly low annual net accumulation (20 cm w.e.a−1) has been inferred from analyses of a firn core extracted from Glaciar Monte San Valentín, Northern Patagonia Icefield (46°35′ S, 73°19′ W; 3747 m a.s.l.). We test a hypothesis linking the low accumulation to a frequent lack of cloud cover over the mountain range at this altitude. The cloudiness over Monte San Valentín and surrounding regions is examined using ∼3000 daily MODIS satellite images from 2000 to 2008. The visual evaluation of the synoptic situation leads to the definition of a daily cloudiness index (EI) for the San Valentín summit and for the regions to the southwest (SW) and northeast (NE). We check its robustness by applying different tests and comparisons. Three levels are assigned for the EI: ‘clear’ (EI = 0), ‘cloudy’ (EI = 1) and ‘mixed’ (EI = 0.5). The results show that the SV cloud cover is similar to the regional cloudiness for more than half the year (54%) and that the case in which the San Valentín summit is clear while both SW and NE regions are cloudy is exceptional (2%). As clouds are necessary to provide precipitation, we show that the low annual net accumulation cannot be explained by an uncommon low cloudiness. This result implies that net accumulation inferred from ice cores in this Andean region must be cautiously interpreted. We also point out that the Andes at this latitude acts as an orographic barrier but without a total blocking of air masses.

The microstructures and microchemistry of four US International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition ice cores were examined, at three depths (30, 60, 90 m) each, using scanning electron microscopy, including electron backscattered patterns and energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), in order to assess the relationship between chemical and physical properties. The physical characteristics (grain size, porosity, density, internal surface volume, and crystallographic orientation) at the four sites were inhomogeneous, as expected on the basis of differences in the moisture content of deposited snow and the accumulation rate at their respective locations. Evidence of shallow subgrain boundary formation and trends in internal surface volume, having implications for the study of firn densification and ice-sheet modeling, were also found. Chemical characterization revealed that site-specific variations in particulate concentration and source could accurately be determined using EDS analysis. It was also found that the combination of elements predominant within the sample controls the morphology and microstructural location of the impurities.

Air-hydrate crystals store most of the ancient air contained in deep ice sheets. We carried out microscopic observations of air-hydrate crystals below 2000 m depth within the ice core from Dome Fuji, Antarctica, to obtain their number and size distributions. We found that the number density continuously decreased with depth, whereas the average size increased, in contrast to findings from shallower depths. In addition, the characteristic perturbations in both number density and average size distribution with climatic changes almost disappeared, although they are clearly observed in shallow cores. These results indicate that the air-hydrate crystals grow considerably in deeper parts of the ice sheet, and this growth is accompanied by the diffusion of air molecules in the ice. The permeation coefficient of the air molecules in the ice sheet was estimated from the geometric parameters of the air-hydrate distributions. This is the first practical evidence comparable to the previous model estimations. It allows us to evaluate the impacts of the air-molecule migration in the ice sheet on the paleoclimatic information recorded in the deep ice cores.

The flow speed of Greenland outlet glaciers is governed by several factors, the relative importance of which is poorly understood. The delivery of surface-generated meltwater to the bed of alpine glaciers has been shown to influence glacier flow speed when the volume of water is sufficient to increase basal fluid pressure and hence basal lubrication. While this effect has also been demonstrated on the Greenland ice-sheet margin, little is known about the influence of surface melting on the large, marine-terminating outlet glaciers that drain the ice sheet. We use a validated model of meltwater input and GPS-derived surface velocities to quantify the sensitivity of glacier flow speed to changes in surface melt at Helheim Glacier during two summer seasons (2007–08). Our observations span ∼55 days near the middle of each melt season. We find that relative changes in glacier speed due to meltwater input are small, with variations of ∼45% in melt producing changes in velocity of ∼2–4%. These velocity variations are, however, of similar absolute magnitude to those observed at smaller glaciers and on the ice-sheet margin. We find that the glacier’s sensitivity to variations in meltwater input decreases approximately exponentially with distance from the calving front. Sensitivity to melt varies with time, but generally increases as the melt season progresses. We interpret the time-varying sensitivity of glacier flow to meltwater input as resulting from changes in subglacial hydraulic routing caused by the changing volume of meltwater input.

We present a study of the mechanical (in)stability of the ephemeral waterfall ice structures that form from the freezing of liquid water seeping on steep rock. Three vertical structures were studied, two near Glacier d’Argentière, France, and one in the Valsavarenche valley, northern Italy. The generation of internal stresses in the ice structure in relation to air- and ice-temperature conditions is analyzed from pressure sensor records. Their role in the mechanical instability of the structures is discussed from a photographic survey of these structures. The main result is that dramatic air cooling (several °Ch−1 over several hours) and low temperatures (<−10°C), generating tensile stresses and brittleness, can trigger a spontaneous or climber-induced mechanical collapse, leading to unfavorable climbing conditions. Ice internal pressure fluctuations are also associated with episodes of marked diurnal air-temperature cycle, with mild days (few above 0) and cool nights (few below 0), through the occurrence of water ↔ ice phase transitions within the structure. These ice internal stress fluctuations seem, however, to have a local influence, are associated with warm (near 0), wet and therefore particularly soft ice and do not trigger a collapse of the structure.

We used observations and modeling of Siple Dome, West Antarctica, a ridge ice divide, to infer the importance of linear deformation mechanisms in ice-sheet flow. We determined the crossover stress (a threshold value of the effective deviatoric stress below which linear flow mechanisms dominate over nonlinear flow mechanisms) by combining measurements of ice properties with in situ deformation rate measurements and a finite-element ice flow model that accounts for the effects of viscous anisotropy induced by preferred crystal-orientation fabric. We found that a crossover stress of 0.18 bar produces the best match between predicted and observed deformation rates. For Siple Dome, this means that including a linear term in the flow law is necessary, but generally the flow is still dominated by the nonlinear (Glen; n = 3) term. The pattern of flow near the divide at Siple Dome is also strongly affected by crystal fabric. Measurements of sonic velocity, which is a proxy for vertically oriented crystal fabric, suggest that a bed-parallel shear band exists several hundred meters above the bed within the Ice Age ice.

We report the detection of bursts of low-frequency waves, typically f = 0.025 Hz, on horizontal channels of broadband seismometers deployed on the Arctic sea-ice cover during the DAMOCLES (Developing Arctic Modeling and Observing Capabilities for Long-term Environmental Studies) experiment in spring 2007. These bursts have amplitudes well above the ambient ice swell and a lower frequency content. Their typical duration is of the order of minutes. They occur at irregular times, with periods of relative quietness alternating with periods of strong activity. A significant correlation between the rate of burst occurrences and the ice-cover deformation at the ∼400 km scale centered on the seismic network suggests that these bursts are caused by remote, episodic deformation involving shearing across regional-scale leads. This observation opens the possibility of complementing satellite measurements of ice-cover deformation, by providing a much more precise temporal sampling, hence a better characterization of the processes involved during these deformation events.