Eight cows were machine milked either in an operating theatre or in their familiar barn. During the experiments, milk flow curves were recorded and blood samples were taken for determination of concentrations of oxytocin, prolactin, cortisol and β–endorphin. The milking cluster was attached without udder preparation. After cessation of milk flow, air was blown into the vagina for 2 min. When milk flow had stopped again, 1 i.u. oxytocin and finally 10 i.u. oxytocin were injected to remove the remaining milk. After the start of milking, oxytocin remained basal in unfamiliar, but increased in familiar surroundings. Therefore, during normal milking only 9% of total milk was removed in unfamiliar, whereas 79% was available in familiar surroundings. In response to subsequent vaginal stimulation in the operating theatre, oxytocin increased transiently in five cows and 15–71% of the milk was removed in these animals. In the other three cows in the operating theatre, oxytocin remained basal during vaginal stimulation, and no more milk was available. After injection of 1 i.u. oxytocin, 56 and 11%, and after injection of 10 i.u. oxytocin, 13 and 8% of milk was removed in unfamiliar and familiar surroundings respectively. Concentrations of prolactin increased during the course of milking in both treatments. Premilking concentrations of cortisol and β–endorphin were elevated in unfamiliar as compared with familiar surroundings. During the course of milking, cortisol increased slightly and β–endorphin decreased in unfamiliar, whereas both hormones increased markedly during milking in familiar surroundings. We conclude that disturbed milk removal in unfamiliar surroundings is due to central inhibition of oxytocin release during normal milking and partly also to a response to vaginal stimulation. This blockade is possibly associated with elevated concentrations of β–endorphin.

Six lactating dairy cows receiving a diet of grass silage and barley were given the following treatments as infusions into the abomasum, in a replicated 3 × 3 Latin square with 10 d periods: sodium caseinate (C), an enzymic hydrolysate of casein (CH) and soya-protein isolate (SPI). The C and CH treatments supplied ~ 185 g/d and the SPI treatment ~ 160 g/d of amino acids. Milk yield was similar for all treatments. Yields of milk protsein were 605, 604 and 582 (P > 0·05) g/d for C, CH and SPI respectively. For C, CH and SPI respectively, concentrations (g/kg) of fat were 39·6, 45·7 and 41·9 and yields (g/d) of fat were 790, 931 and 827; values for CH were significantly (P < 0·01) higher than for either of the other treatments. It is concluded that the form in which amino acid residues of casein are supplied to the abomasum (protein v. peptide–amino acid mixtures) can influence the partition of use of nutrients between body tissues and the mammary gland.

The effect of a switch level of 200 or 400 g/min for automatic cluster removers on milking performance and udder health was measured with 71 first lactation cows in their first 36 weeks of lactation and with 64 older cows in their first 12 weeks of lactation. Early removal of the milking unit decreased machine-on time by 0·5 min, increased average milk flow rate slightly, improved teat condition significantly and reduced the change in teat end thickness during milking of first lactation cows. Early removal of the milking unit did not affect milk yield or composition, and the incidence and prevalence of subclinical mastitis were the same in the two groups. Fewer older cows developed clinical mastitis in the group switched at 400 g/min, but this was not significant. It is concluded that the milking unit can be detached at a milk flow rate of 400 instead of 200 g/min without having a negative influence on milk yield. Machine-on time is shortened and teat condition improved, and udder health does not seem to be affected.

The response of dairy cows to once a day (OAD) milking was investigated in four trials. Two trials involved Friesians (F) and Jersey cows selected for high (HP) or low (LP) milk protein concentration. Trial 1 compared 74 HP, LP and F cows milked either OAD or twice daily (TAD) for 2 weeks in both mid and late lactation. Trial 2 compared 98 HP, LP and F cows milked OAD or TAD for 12 weeks in early lactation. Trial 3 investigated the repeatability of production loss by milking identical twin cows either OAD or TAD during three 1 week periods. Trial 4 compared the time course of milk production in 32 cows milked every 12 or 24 h for 72 h. Cows milked OAD produced 10–28% less milk and milk solids in early to mid lactation and 9–13% less in late lactation than cows milked TAD. Losses in fat and protein yield were slightly lower than those of milk. HP, LP and F cows did not differ in percentage loss in milk and milk solids in Trial 1, except for loss in protein yield which was lower for HP than LP and F cows. In Trial 2 the losses in milk and milk solids were lower for HP cows than for F cows but the other differences were not significant. Milk storage ability of the udder (hours worth of secretion) was higher and productivity of the udder was lower for HP cows than F cows. Levels of residual milk did not differ among groups. The loss in udder capacity during lactation was greater for cows milked OAD than for those milked TAD. The correlations for repeated estimates of percentage losses in yields of milk and milk solids between successive OAD periods ranged from 0·29 to 0·49. Secretion rate of cows milked OAD was lower during the second 12 h than the first 12 h during each 24 h milking interval. Prediction of OAD performance based on milk composition and udder characteristics was poor. A high level of residual milk was the factor most consistently associated with high loss on OAD milking.

Skim milk was heated at 85 °C for different holding times. As a result of such heating, whey proteins, in particular β-lactoglobulin, denatured and associated with casein micelles. This led to an increase in size of the casein micelles but also to a different interaction between them. Both these changes could be described by using a quantitative model which was developed for the viscosity of so-called adhesive hard spheres. We applied the model successfully to skim milk and were able to describe on a quantitative basis the changes due to the heat treatment of milk. It was shown that after heating the casein micelles became larger and acquired a mutual attraction. The unfolding of the whey proteins and their subsequent association with the casein micelles appeared to be responsible for these changes. How this reaction influences the fouling of heat exchangers is discussed.

The effect of treatments designed to improve the efficiency of milk removal and minimize loss of production in cows milked once a day (OAD) was assessed in short-term trials involving Friesian and Jersey cows. Trial 1 involved 80 cows and compared twice a day (TAD) milking with OAD milking with the administration of 20 i.u. of oxytocin (OX), OAD milking with udder massage before and during milking (OS) and no treatment during OAD milking (OC). The OX and OS groups had increased yields of milk and milk solids when treatments were applied, though yields were not restored to previous TAD levels. The percentage increase shown by OX cows was greater than that of OS cows for fat yield. The level of residual milk in the udder after milking was lower for the OX group than for the OAD and TAD controls. In Trial 2, 12 cows were subjected to fast or slow rates of milking OAD in each of two periods. Losses in milk, fat and protein yields averaged 9·1, 9·9 and 1·0% respectively. Increased rate of milking reduced milking time and time to let-down but did not affect response to OAD milking. The results showed that treatments that increased the evacuation of the udder during milking and decreased the level of residual milk reduced losses in production that occur on OAD milking. Increasing the rate of milking was ineffective in reducing losses on OAD milking.

Bacteriology, somatic cell counts (SCO) and N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase (NAGase) activity determinations were conducted on milk samples collected from does in three dairy herds with caprine arthritis–encephalitis virus (CAEV) infection. In two herds, CAEV-infected does were more likely to have a subclinical bacterial infection of the udder than CAEV-free does (P < 0·05). Does with CAEV but no bacterial udder infection had significantly greater mean SCO and NAGase activity than CAEV-free does without udder infection (P < 0·01). In two herds, changes in milk SCC and NAGase associated with CAEV infection were similar to those produced by coagulase-negative staphylococcal infections. The findings confirm that indirect indicators of bacterial mastitis infection may have reduced specificity in dairy goat herds with CAEV.

The yield and composition of milk from nursing mares were studied during the first 2 months of lactation in two groups of six and five saddle mares respectively made thin or fat before foaling, then fed ad lib. post partum. Milk yield did not significantly vary with body condition (16·5 and 15·4 kg/d for fat and thin mares respectively). Milk from fat mares had a higher fat content than milk from thin mares; the reverse was found for protein. The composition of milk fat was modified: milk of fat mares was poorer in short- and medium-chain fatty acids (C8-C14). Milk fat output was affected by body condition: 252 and 187 g/d for fat and thin mares respectively. This can be explained by a difference in lipid mobilization, as shown by variations in non-esterified fatty acids.

The formation of hydrophobic sites on the surface of casein micelles as a consequence of enzymic coagulation of industrially heat-treated milk was studied by following the distribution of a fluorescent hydrophobic probe between a free and an aggregated protein fraction. Results were compared with those obtained when coagulation of the same milk samples was followed rheologically in a Gelograph apparatus and by tristimulus colorimetry. Thermal treatment of milk appeared to affect the accessibility of casein to enzyme action, while homogenization influenced the rate of cooperative aggregation of casein subjected to proteolysis.

Fouling from milk fluids is a severe industrial problem which reduces the efficiency of process plant. The chemistry of fouling has been thoroughly investigated but the sequence of events that occur is not yet clear. Deposit contains both protein and minerals. Experiments have been carried out to determine the sequence of events in the fouling of stainless steel surfaces at 96 °C from turbulent flows of whey. Contact times between 4 and 210 s have been studied, and surface analysis techniques used to detect the distribution of elements. The first layer of deposit, formed after 4 s of contact between the fluid and the surface (fluid temperature 68 and 73 °C), consisted mainly of protein and was identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis. There was a lag phase of up to 150 s for a fluid temperature of 73 °C before deposit aggregates were observed to adsorb on to the surface. These aggregates were identified as protein and Ca by X-ray elemental mapping. No P was found in any experiments for this exposure. After 60 min contact time, however, both Ca and P were found at the interface between deposit and the stainless steel surface, irrespective of the Ca and P content of the test fluid.

British Saanen dairy goats (n = 10) were treated with bromocriptine or vehicle from day 147 of pregnancy to day 4 post partum, a treatment duration of 8·8±1·7 d (mean ± SEM). The periparturient prolactin surge was abolished by this treatment, but there were no significant effects on plasma growth hormone or insulin concentrations. Lactogenesis was delayed in the bromocriptine-treated goats, milk yields being significantly depressed (P < 0·01) for the first week of lactation. Yields had recovered to control values by day 10 when prolactin concentrations were still significantly depressed. Mammary gland biopsies were taken on day 4 post partum from five animals in each group. Using this tissue, no significant differences could be shown in mammary morphology or DNA synthesis, but the RNA:DNA ratio was significantly reduced (P < 0·05). After week 1, there were no significant differences between bromocriptine-treated and control goats in milk yield, milk composition, udder volume, time of peak yield or persistence. The goats given short-term bromocriptine treatment at parturition showed prolonged effects on prolactin secretion, their seasonal prolactin rise being severely blunted (P < 0·001). A normal lactation is therefore not prevented in goats by a delay in lactogenesis, suppression of prolactin at parturition or the resulting prolonged depression of circulating prolactin. Goats in established lactation given bromocriptine for 8 d showed, by contrast, a rapid recovery of plasma prolactin concentrations within 5 d post treatment. Milk yield declined significantly (P < 0·03) compared with pretreatment values during and for 1 week after bromocriptine but then began to recover, with no significant change in vehicle-treated goats.

In the present study newly calved cows were tentatively classified as moderate and severe responders to experimentally induced Escherichia coli mastitis based upon the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating capacity of their blood neutrophils before infection. The groups differed in blood and milk composition prior to infection. This initial classification was supported by the corresponding variation in clinical symptoms and in the changes in milk production and composition measured during mastitis. Responses of newly calved cows to Esch. coli challenge varied from mild to severe symptoms of inflammation in infected glands and differed in the intensity of systemic disturbances and general illness. Losses in milk yield and compositional changes were most pronounced in inflamed glands and in severe responders. In inflamed glands milk yield and composition did not return to preinfection level in either moderate or severe responders. The yields of lactose, α-lactalbumin, casein and fat followed the same pattern as milk yield. It is concluded that the severe and long lasting systemic disturbances observed in severe responders can be ascribed to absorption of endotoxin from infected glands into circulation, indicating the important role of endotoxin in the pathology of coliform mastitis in periparturient cows. Evaluation of the ROS-generating capacity of blood neutrophils and blood and milk composition before infection might help to predict the cow's sensitivity to Esch. coli mastitis.

The functional significance of citrate in the mammary secretion of six sows was investigated during the second stage of lactogenesis (lactogenesis II) and established lactation. The changes in the concentrations of progesterone and lactose in the maternal blood, and lactose, Na and K in the mammary secretion, suggested that lactogenesis II began during the final day of pregnancy. The concentration of citrate in the mammary secretion of the sows during lactogenesis II was high and varied from 5·4 (SEM 0·5) mai at day 0·5 post partum to 6·8 (SEM 0·4) mM at day 1·5 post partum. There was a decline of ˜ 30% in the concentration of citrate in the milk of sows during the first week of lactation. These findings suggest that, in contrast to all other species studied previously, milk citrate is not a harbinger of lactogenesis II in the sow. However, the changes in the concentration of citrate in the mammary secretion of sows may reflect changes in the rate of de novo synthesis of fatty acids that take place in the mammary glands of sows during lactogenesis II and established lactation.

A novel ovine αs2-casein variant has been detected using discontinuons polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis at alkaline pH, two dimensional electrophoresis and immunoblotting. It is characterized by a greater negative net charge and a lower isoelectric point compared with the most common ovine αs2-casein variant. The phenotypic frequency in the Manchega breed is 5·5%.

The effect of acidification method (microbiological with or without renneting, HCl addition) on mass transfer, fouling structure and the rheology of the retentate was studied in the ultrafiltration of skim milk coagula using a mineral microfiltration membrane. The increase in fouling with time appeared to determine permeate flow rates, which were higher in biological coagula, and the protein retention rates which were higher in chemical coagula. Fouling was investigated using scanning electron microscopy. The rheological study showed that at the same total solids, biological coagula were more viscous than chemical coagula. The initial coagula (total solids 97 g/kg) all displayed pseudoplastic behaviour at low shear velocities and Newtonian behaviour at high velocities. Ultrafiltration of fat-enriched milk coagulum to a dry weight corresponding to a soft cheese (total solids 334 g/kg; fat in total solids 60%) gave satisfactory permeate flow rates and protein retention rates. Performance was related to the composition of the product, the hydrodynamic parameters used and the resulting fouling. The rheological study showed that the initial coagulum behaved as a pseudoplastic body at low shear rate and for higher velocities as a Newtonian liquid. The concentrated retenate behaved as an ideal viscoplastic body (Bingham body).

Two trials were conducted to investigate the effect of pre-milking teat dipping (PMTD) on mastitis caused by environmentally associated pathogens. The first trial showed considerable variation in effect between herds, so a second, larger trial was conducted. In this second trial a comparison of the rate of clinical mastitis was made between nine matched pairs of dairy herds over 24 weeks of the winter housed period. All herds were near the national average incidence of mastitis before the trial. One member of each pair used their normal method of udder preparation throughout the trial and disinfected all teats after milking with an iodophor disinfectant. In the other nine herds the preparation of all teats, at all milkings, included dipping in a 0·25% available iodine disinfectant, which was left on the teat for 30 s. Every teat was then wiped with a paper towel before cluster attachment. There was no difference in the overall rate of mastitis or the incidence of mastitis caused by any particular type or group of pathogens between the trial groups of herds. Both groups showed a reduction in mastitis compared with the previous winter. Although there were apparent benefits in some pairs of herds there was no overall benefit. In comparison with the previous winter the control herds reported a greater reduction in mastitis than the PMTD herds. The effect of trial supervision on normal practice gave a benefit which overwhelmed any effect of PMTD. There appeared to be no effect of PMTD on the total bacterial count, cell count or iodine content of bulk tank milk. There appears to be no justification for wholesale use of PMTD although most farms and risk groups could benefit from better attention to conventional mastitis control.

The separation of cows', sheep's and goats' milk casein components by HPLC on a strong anion-exchange (P.L-SAX 8μ 1000A) column is described. During HLPC, whole caseins of the three kinds of milk behaved differently from conventional separations. The casein components of the three kinds of milk were well resolved under the Chromatographie conditions used. HPLC resolved the κ-caseins better than did ion-exchange chromatography on DEAE cellulose, and was particularly efficient in the case of goats' milk. Goats' and sheep's milks had almost similar Chromatographie profiles but these differed considerably from that of cows' milk. Caseins from the sheep and the goat were also similar in that a shallower NaCl gradient was required for the separation of casein components than for cows' milk.

A study was undertaken of the heat exchange possible in a milk powder plant consisting of milk treatment, a four-effect evaporator fitted with a thermovapour recompressor and a spray drier fitted with a fluidized bed secondary drier. The study utilized the techniques of process integration analysis and grand composite curve matching. Of particular interest was the optimum utilization of vapours within the evaporator. It was shown that with a minor redesign of the evaporator, and utilization of some vapour in the milk treatment section of the plant, a 6% reduction in total energy consumption of the milk powder plant was possible. If heat exchange between inlet and outlet air of the spray drier was not considered practical, preheating spray drier air with vapour from the evaporator resulted in a 10% reduction in energy consumption. Other minor heat exchange possibilities were also revealed. It was concluded that the use of vapour from the evaporator, and increased steam consumption in the evaporator, may lead in some designs to decreased plant thermal energy consumption overall. As well as the process integration study, formulae are presented for calculating the change in thermal economy of an evaporator when vapour is extracted for use in other sections of the plant. The use of process integration studies needs to be given consideration in overall design of energy-intensive dairy plant.

One hundred and thirty-seven (Holstein (41), Montbéliarde (42) and Tarentaise (54)) dairy cows in first or second lactation received during winter one of two levels (high, H; low, L) of energy intake, and were later fed identically at pasture. Thrice in winter and twice at pasture, the chemical composition and coagulation properties of individual milks were measured. Milk from Holstein cows had lower casein and calcium contents, and poorer coagulation properties (curd firming time and curd firmness) than that from Montbéliardes and Tarentaises (P < 0·01). These differences practically disappeared when taking into account the distribution of the different κ-casein variants and milk casein content. κ-BB milks had coagulation properties 20–50% superior, according to characteristic, to those of AA milks. In the three breeds, animals from the H group had casein contents higher by 1·4 g/l than those of the L group, which induced a significant improvement in curd firming time, curd firmness and cheese yield. Turning out to pasture induced an increase of 0·02 in milk pH, and improved milk coagulation properties. These changes did not appear to result entirely from the parallel increase in milk casein content.

The effects of decreasing pH and micellar calcium concentrations of reconstituted skim milk and caseinate solution were studied by 1H and 17O NMR spectroscopy. The proton transverse relaxation rate 1/T2 of skim milk decreased as the pH decreased, reaching a minimum at pH 5·3. However, as the pH fell sodium caseinate solution showed a continuous increase in 1/T2, with no minimum. Analysis of proton relaxation as a function of the interpulse time in the CPMG (Carr-Purcell-Meiboom-Gill) sequence demonstrated that both the proton exchange mechanism and ‘bound’ water contributed to proton relaxation in skim milk. The study of 17O relaxation rate as a function of pH confirmed the change in protein hydration upon acidification. Increasing the amount of EDTA showed that the proton transverse relaxation rate of skim milk decreased until a plateau was reached when the micellar calcium was totally solubilized. With excess EDTA the relaxation rates of skim milk and caseinate solution were identical. A strong correlation was also found between the pH dependent relaxation rate and the solubilization of micellar phosphorus as detected by 31P NMR. Together, these results suggested that aggregation of caseins by calcium and colloidal calcium phosphate is mainly responsible for the excess hydration in skim milk micelles.