The General Assembly held its eighteenth session, comprising the 1206th–1285th plenary meetings, at UN Headquarters from September 17 to December 17, 1963, during which time it took action on 86 agenda items. Zanzibar and Kenya were admitted to membership at the 1281st plenary meeting on December 16, 1963, thereby bringing the total UN membership to 113.

The third meeting of the Ministerial Council of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) was held in Paris on November 19–20, 1963, under the chairmanship of Dr. Halyard Lange, the Norwegian Foreign Minister. During the discussion on economic growth the Council took note of the improvement in the prospects for economic growth in member countries since the end of 1962, especially in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. It was expected that the increase in gross national product (GNP) of the OECD area for the period 1960–1964 would correspond to the growth target of 50 percent set in 1961 for the ten-year period beginning with 1960. Because of the persistent gap between the industrialized countries and those that were in the process of development, the Council considered that OECD and its more industrialized members should continue to devote their attention and cooperation to the development problems of the less developed members. The ministers noted in particular that a new Spanish development program would be inaugurated in 1964.

The 30th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), comprising the 1112th to the 1134th meetings inclusive, was held in Geneva from July 5 to August 5, 1960. In opening the session, Mr. C. W. A. Schurmann (Netherlands), President for i960, drew attention to the meetings at the ministerial level and to the discussion of program appraisals, two innovations which were to constitute a noteworthy experiment of the current session.

The Council of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) held its fifteenth session from October 23 to October 27, 1961, in Geneva, under the chairmanship of Dr. Mario Raul Pico (Argentina). During the first day's meeting, the delegates granted observer status to delegations from Japan and the European Economic Community (EEC). The Council examined a progress report in which it was noted that the Committee had helped re-establish in new homes 56,462 migrants in the first seven months of 1961—a drop of almost 3,000 from the same period in 1960. The decline resulted chiefly from a slowdown in migration to Australia. The total number of workers—both industrial and agricultural—leaving Europe for Latin America under ICEM auspices during the seven-month period was almost double that of 1960.

The 143d session of the Governing Body of the International Labor Organization (ILO) was held in Geneva from November 17 to November 20, 1959. As had been decided at its 141st session (March 1959), the Governing Body was given an opportunity at the outset to review the major emphases and trends of ILO's activities and methods of work. This was undertaken as an experiment which the Governing Body could repeat if it deemed it necessary or beneficial. Opening the debate, the United States representative pointed out that ILO's objective of improving the condition of the underdeveloped countries had generally been regarded as most important and that much still remained to be done in that field. He cautioned against the dissipation of efforts on secondary matters, as funds for operational activities were limited and the setting of priorities was therefore imperative. In his opinion, some of the industrial committees had been running out of useful work; he thus suggested substituting for them ad hoc meetings designed to cope with specific regional problems. He also criticized various joint projects ILO had undertaken with other specialized agencies as well as the drafting of rigid instruments which, in his opinion, occupied too much of the Organization's time. In the ensuing discussion, all representatives agreed on the importance and necessity of ILO's operational activities, particularly technical assistance. Several speakers suggested that technical assistance should not be confined to industry but should also be given to agriculture. The representative of West Germany, for one, expressed the view that the Organization should intensify its work in the field of employment and labor-management relations, while the Indian spokesman favored workers’ education programs and vocational training, as well as a long term project for raising living standards in rural areas.

The tenth session of the Council of the Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration (ICEM) was held in Geneva, April 7–10, 1959. Ambassador Alberto Berio, chief of the permanent delegation of Italy to the European Office of the UN, was elected to succeed Ambassador H. de Souza-Gomes (Brazil) as Council Chairman, following which Mr. A. Yerocostopoulos, chief of the Greek delegation, asked immigration countries to increase the numbers of Greek workers admitted as migrants. Citing the facts that his country had the highest net annual birth rate in Europe and that the Greek economy could absorb barely half the 50,000 new workers entering the labor market each year, he expressed the hope that the level of ICEM-assisted migrants might be raised and maintained at 10,000 per year, that is, almost double the current intake.

The eighteenth annual report of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for the fiscal year ending April 30, 1963, was transmitted to the Board of Governors on July 11, 1963, by the Acting Chairman of the Executive Board, Mr. Frank A. Southard, Jr. Summarizing the world payments situation, the report indicated that economic activity continued during 1962 to expand in most industrial countries. Exceptions to this general upward trend were recorded in the United Kingdom and Japan and were seen partly as the result of policies directed toward strengthening the balance of payments. In both 1961 and 1962 the value of world trade was some 5 percent higher than in the preceding year, and in 1962 the increase in the value of exports of primary producing countries as a group almost kept pace with that of the manufacturing countries, although declines in the prices of certain products adversely affected some nations.

Explanations for the successful expansion and consolidation of the European Union and its legal system have long emphasized the importance of domestic courts’ sending preliminary references to the Court of Justice. Key to many of these theoretical accounts is the claim that domestic courts are better equipped than the Court of Justice to compel national governments to comply with EU law. Integrating insights from the comparative judicial politics literature into the context of the EU's preliminary references system, we provide a theoretical and empirical foundation for this claim by arguing that incorporating domestic courts into the EU legal process enhances public support for expansive judicial interpretations of EU law. We go on to argue, however, that this transfer of legitimacy depends on citizens’ views of the national and European courts. We support our argument with evidence from a preregistered survey experiment fielded in Germany.

The Bretton Woods institutions were set up long before physical warfare ceased. They are part of a wider undertaking to further international cooperation in the postwar world. Befitting its imposing influence, the United States took a prominent part in this enterprise. The overall design lending coherence to the blueprints for economic collaboration is predominantly of American authorship. It is too early yet to assess the worth of these blueprints and the merits of American policy, but even now it isclear that some of the new institutions may not function as intended. Adverse and unforeseen circumstances may force either drastic revision or failure. According to some observers, the companion agencies established at Bretton ”Woods belong in this category.

In these closing decades of the twentieth century modern man is a paradox of extremes. He possesses untold knowledge and wealth, but these have brought no universal end to the indignity of poverty and ignorance. He has conquered space, but on earth he is unable to overcome conflicts and inequities. His mastery of science and technology gives him unprecedented power, but his living world is threatened as at no time since his planetary home first gave him warmth and shelter.

This issue covers the work of the Security Council from the 646th meeting on December 11, 1953, to the 660th meeting on February 24, 1954.

The 34th session of the Council of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was held in Rome, October 17–27, 1960. Noting that this was the fifteenth anniversary of FAO-the first specialized agency to be set up by United Nations governments, the Council urged all nations to increase their active support of the organization and to participate fully in the Freedom-From-Hunger Campaign. In adopting the report of the Committee on Commodity Problems, the Council once again expressed concern at the adverse effects of the worsening in recent years of the ratio of agricultural product prices to those of other goods and at the slow growth of markets for agricultural exports in the industrial countries. The Council was reminded of the Special Fund projects for which FAO already was, or was to become, the executing agency; they included an inter-regional desert locust project and regional projects pertaining to 1) agricultural education in Latin America, and 2) animal health in the Near East. Concerning the report on the Freedom-From-Hunger Campaign, delegates stressed the need for strengthened planning with respect to the projects undertaken within the framework of the Campaign. The Council also heard reports on: the control of foot-and-mouth disease; FAO's joint programs with the UN Children's Emergency Fund; recent developments in the organization of international work in oceanography; and program appraisals, inter alia. Resolutions were adopted on the following subjects: 1) the provision of food surpluses to food-deficient peoples; and 2) administrative and financial matters, including approval for the setting up of a joint policy committee on oceanography by FAO and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization.

The 31st session of the Trusteeship Council, comprising its 1225th–1243rd meetings, was held from May 20 to June 29, 1964. At its opening meeting the Council elected Mr. Corner (New Zealand) President and Mr. Doise (France) Vice President.

The 43d session of the International Labor Conference was held in Geneva from June 3 to 25, 1959, under the presidency of Mr. E. Dreyer (Danish government delegate). The Conference was attended by over 900 delegates, advisers, and observers from 75 member countries and 15 territories, including the Ministers of Labor from 41 countries.

From the time of the Marshall Plan to the present, American policy toward Europe has been guided simultaneously by two aspirations. One has been to see western Europe unified, the other—stemming from the conviction that the fate of the United States is inextricably tied to that of Europe—has been to create strong bonds among the Atlantic nations. Until quite recently it was believed that these two aspirations stood in a kind of predetermined harmony to each other: the more tightly the European nations would band together, gaining strength and prosperity from their union, the better it would be for all members of the Atlantic Community; and the more intimately Europe was linked with the United States, the more Europe, as a unit, would stand to gain.

The objectives of the founders of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reflected the dual nature of atomic power: it was the embodiment of both the highest hopes and the deepest fears of mankind. First, the Agency's developmental responsibility was to accelerate the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health, and prosperity throughout the world. Second and equally important was to be the Agency's control function: to create a reliable system of safeguards against diversion of fissionable material to military uses in order that the broadening of the peaceful applications of atomic energy should not increase the danger of strengthening the military potential of nations. Within this broad framework, the Agency was to plan and carry out specific projects and activities. This responsibility was largely to be a function of the Board of Governors, whose establishment was an immediate necessity if IAEA was to begin operations.

The resumed 34th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), comprising the 1237th–1241st meetings, was held on December 18—20, 1962, under the presidency of Mr. Jerzy Michalowski (Poland). The major substantive issue discussed by the Council during this session was the report of the Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), which was considered at the 1239th meeting. In this connection, the Council had before it four draft resolutions: 1) recommending the expulsion of Portugal from ECA; 2) calling for the suspension of South Africa from ECA; 3) requesting ECA to reconsider its recommendation concerning the status of Spain, the United Kingdom, and France in the Commission; and 4) taking note of ECA's report and endorsing the program of work and priorities contained therein.

Unlike the other countries in what we tend to call “the Soviet bloc,” the Soviet Union benefited financially from the oil crises of the 1970s, for it was a major petroleum and natural gas exporter. The oil crises also benefited the Soviet Union indirectly as a number of radical Third World oil producers acquired money to buy more Soviet arms. Moreover, the windfall increase in petroleum prices was supplemented by a similar windfall increase in the price of the other major Soviet export product, gold. The subsidies that the Soviet Union provided to Eastern Europe did not entail any sacrifice of resources that had been previously committed but required only that it forgo even greater gains. The politics underlying the Soviet decisions were the politics underlying the rapid expansion of export earnings.