The Bretton Woods institutions were set up long before physical warfare ceased. They are part of a wider undertaking to further international cooperation in the postwar world. Befitting its imposing influence, the United States took a prominent part in this enterprise. The overall design lending coherence to the blueprints for economic collaboration is predominantly of American authorship. It is too early yet to assess the worth of these blueprints and the merits of American policy, but even now it isclear that some of the new institutions may not function as intended. Adverse and unforeseen circumstances may force either drastic revision or failure. According to some observers, the companion agencies established at Bretton ”Woods belong in this category.

UNCTAD provides a unique focus for studying the response of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) to the New International Economic Order. Not only has UNCTAD played a role in stimulating East-South trade links since its foundation in 1964 but the East European members of the CMEA, collectively incarnated at UNCTAD as Group D, have there transformed their behavior with respect to the less developed countries. This transformation is evident in the evolution of Group D's position across four sets of negotiations: those on commodities trade and the Common Fund, on the Generalized System of Preferences, on the Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences, and on the Code of Conduct for Transfer of Technology. Contrasts between the conduct of the CMEA and that of the EEC at UNCTAD highlight the significance of Group D's use of international law to remake the world trade system. Implicit in this strategy is the question of domestic state trading structures, which appears to be a principal factor motivating issue-specific coalitions at UNCTAD between the CMEA countries and the Group of 77. The CMEA countries use UNCTAD to reinforce their sovereign prerogatives as states in a transnational world, refashioning at the same time the transnational environment in which states conduct mutual relations, in order to reconstruct in their own favor the international regimes governing various aspects of trade and development.

The world is witnessing not only a population explosion but a family planning revolution. For the first time in history there is concrete evidence that people throughout most of the world accept the need for family planning and desire that family planning services be made available to them. And for the first time in history we have the technical means to implement family planning programs—the pill, the intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD), and other methods. Moreover, research now under way suggests that reliance on a contraceptive pill that must be taken daily or an IUCD that is presently unsatisfactory to 25 percent of those using it will some day be of only historical interest—mere shadows reflecting the dim dark ages in the history of family planning. Already researchers have had success with an injectable contraceptive that provides long-standing immunity from pregnancy.

The seventh session of the Ministerial Council of the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO), formerly known as the Baghdad Pact, was held in Washington, D. C., October 7–9, 1959. In its communiqué issued following the meeting, the Council welcomed the conclusion of bilateral agreements between the United States and the regional members, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey, noting with gratification the determination of die United States to assist the signatory nations to maintain their security and independence, while simultaneously contributing to die enhancement of their economic potential. The statement emphasized that CENTO existed solely for defensive purposes, that it threatened no one, and that it sincerely desired to have close and friendly relations with all other states, particularly with the neighboring states in the region.

On March 23, 1961, it was announced that the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) had formally taken over its main joint research center when the Italian government's nuclear research center at Ispra was handed over to Euratom President Etienne Hirsch. By the end of 1962 the staff at the center, which was to be not only the main Euratom research center but also its only general-purpose one, was expected to number 1,500. Other joint research centers were being set up at Mol, Belgium; Karlsruhe, Germany; and Patten, the Netherlands. It was also announced that a plan had been set up to build the European Transuranium Institute alongside the Nuclear Research Institute at Karlsruhe, Germany.

Listed below is the membership of UN bodies for 1961. Unless otherwise noted, membership expires on December 31 of the year indicated.

The twenty-sixth annual report of the Bank for International Settlements was published on June II, 1956. In its survey of the year April 1, 1955—March 31, 1956, the report declared that the most important feature of 1955 was that the effect of an economic boom in North America had been superimposed on the powerful forces for expansion operating in western Europe. There was a definite need, however, for measures which would moderate the boom without weakening the forces tending to promote healthy economic growth. For this reason, direct internal or external controls had not been reapplied by the authorities and trade had been further liberalized, while restrictions on foreign payments had also been further relaxed. There had been a continuation of flexibility in credit policies pursued by the authorities who had employed methods of credit restraint, such as increased interest rates.

Les derniers mois de 1960, les premiers mois de 1961 ont suffi a provoquer, dans l'histoire des Nations Unies, un tournant spectaculaire et peut-etre decisif, bien qu'il soit encore fort difficile de discerner la direction dans laquelle l'Organisation internationale va se trouver engagée. Au moment où ces lignes étaient écrites, les changements d'atmosphere et de perspectives etaient deja impressionnants. La diplomatic sovietique a été le moteur principal de cette evolution, l'affaire du Congo, l'occasion, ou le levier, la position du Secrétariat et de son chef, l'objectif. Car on ne saurait douter que si la personne de M. Dag Hammarskjöld est aussi violemment mise en cause, c'est, à travers elle, l'institution qu'il incarne et à laquelle il avait su conferer un prestige et des moyens d'action sans précédent qui est visée et c'est ce qui fait la gravite de la crise. Aussi n'est-il pas inutile, peut-etre, au moment où, passees les premières protestations, certains commencent à penser que des changements sont inévitables, de se demander ce qui est réellement en jeu. Pour ce faire, force est de se tourner d'abord vers le passé et de considérer comment s'est formée, dans la pratique des Nations Unies, la fonction politique dont ont été charges le Secretariat et surtout son chef. Nous devrons ensuite examiner les attaques dont elle a été l'objet et apprécier les propositions de réforme qui ont été avancées.

The state of China — a nation of possibly 460,000,000 people — has been a Member of the United Nations since the foundation of that organization in 1945. As a Member, China is legally entitled to representation in United Nations organs unless and until, pursuant to preventive or enforcement action taken by the Security Council, the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership may be suspended by the General Assembly upon recommendation of the Security Council. The representatives of China in United Nations organs from 1945 to the present have been accredited by the National Government of the Republic of China. By the end of 1949 control over the mainland of China and over perhaps 450,000,000 people had passed from the National Government to the (communist) “Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China,” the effective control of the National Government having been reduced largely to the island of Formosa.

At a meeting of the Danube Commission in December 1951, a Soviet proposal that only states whose vessels were directly involved in an accident on the Danube should take part in its investigation was approved. Yugoslavia objected to the proposal as a violation of the sovereign rights of the riparian states which, Yugoslavia felt, should investigate any accident which occurred in its territory. At a further meeting of the commission at Galatz, Rumania, in July 1952, a commission was set up to examine a Yugoslav proposal toamend the rules of procedure and the Statute. A Yugoslav motion that this commission report to the next session of the commission in December 1952, was rejected; no date was set for further action on the Yugoslav resolution. The Yugoslav delegate (Djurich) maintained that, at present, the commission was not independent but was controlled by the Soviet Union; the purpose of his government's resolution, he continued, would be to make the organization more representative.

The problem of security (“a feeling of safety, whether founded on fact or delusion”, “freedom from danger, care or anxiety”) is inevitably seen in different perspective from Washington and Hanoi, from Canberra and Tokyo, from New Delhi, Singapore, Djakarta and Peking. It is at once global and regional; it assumes different proportions when viewed by the Burman rice coolie and the Japanese factory worker, the Californian industrialist and the Malayan rubber planter, the Melbourne factory worker and the Whitehall administrator.

The second session of the Assembly of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) was held in London from April 5–14, 1961. Mr. W. L. de Vries, Director-General of Shipping in the Netherlands Ministry of Transport, was elected President of the session and Mr. Ove Nielson, Secretary-General of IMCO, acted as secretary. The Assembly elected Argentina, Australia, India, and the Soviet Union to fill out the sixteen-member Council on which Belgium, Canada, France, West Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States were already represented. The Assembly: 1) established a Credentials Committee consisting of Canada, Japan, Liberia, Poland, and Turkey; 2) adopted a budget for 1962–1963 of $892,-350; 3) approved Mauritania's application for membership by a two-thirds vote following the rule that non-members of the United Nations had to be approved by such a vote after recommendation by the Council; and 4) in view of the advisory opinion of June 8, 1960, of the International Court of Justice to the effect that the Maritime Safety Committee was improperly constituted, dissolved the committee and elected Argentina, Canada, France, West Germany, Greece, Italy, Japan, Liberia, the Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States to the reconstituted committee. The Assembly during its second session also approved an expanded work program submitted by the IMCO Council including new duties connected with international travel and transport, with special reference to the simplification of ship's papers. The Assembly asked IMCO to study the arrangements for the maintenance of certain light beacons used for navigation at the southern end of the Red Sea which were being maintained by the United Kingdom with the help of the Netherlands. Also under consideration was a new convention on the safety of life at sea submitted to the Assembly by a Conference on Safety of Life at Sea and containing a number of recommendations to IMCO on studies relating to such matters as ship construction, navigation, and other technical subjects on safety at sea. The Assembly decided that in conjunction with United Nations programs of technical cooperation the UN should be informed that IMCO was in a position to provide advice and guidance on technical matters affecting shipping engaged in international trade.

The Conference of Directors of the International Meteorological Organization, meeting in Washington, D.C., on September 22, 1947, formulated and opened for signature on October 11, 1947, the Convention of the World Meteorological Organization, an intergovernmental body which as a specialized agency was to continue the functions of the semi-official International Meteorological Organization. The Final Act of the Conference suspended the rights of the Director of the Spanish Meteorological Service in accordance with the resolution of the General Assembly of December 12, 1946, and provided for the convening of the first meeting of the Congress of the World Meteorological Organization immediately upon the coming into force of the Convention. The projected organization was to consist of 1) the World Meteorological Congress, which would convene at least every four years to adopt technical regulations covering meteorological practices and procedures, and to determine general policies for the fulfilment of the purposes of the organization; 2) the Executive Committee, which would meet at least once a year to supervise the execution of the resolutions of the Congress, adopt resolutions arising from the recommendations of the technical commissions of the organization, provide technical information and assistance in the field of meteorology, and study matters affecting international meteorology and the operation of meteorological services; 3) regional associations meeting as often as necessary to promote the execution of the resolutions of the Congress and the Executive Committee in their respective regions, to coordinate meteorological and associated activities and to make recommendations to the Congress and the Committee on matters within the purpose of the organization; 4) technical commissions to be established by the Congress to study and make recommendations on any subject within the scope of the organization; and 5) a permanent secretariat. The future status of the organization as a specialized agency was provided for in Article 25 of the Convention.

The fifteenth regular session of the contracting parties to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was held in Tokyo from October 26 to November 20, 1959. The first three days of the session were devoted to an exchange of views between ministerial representatives of the contracting parties, at the conclusion of which a communiqué was published, whereby the ministers: 1) agreed that, as a result of the action taken in recent months by certain countries to make their currencies convertible for non-residents, there was no longer any justification on balance-of-payments grounds for discriminatory restrictions by countries with export earnings largely in convertible currencies; 2) considered that rapid progress could thenceforth be made in elimination of all quantitative restrictions on imports by countries no longer experiencing balance-of-payments difficulties; 3) laid great emphasis on the importance of making every effort to help less developed countries which had not shared fully in the improvement of economic conditions; 4) made frequent reference to the possibly disruptive effect of a sharp increase in exports of manufactured goods from countries where the cost of production was substantially lower than that prevailing in importing countries; and 5) agreed that regional economic arrangements such as the European Economic Community (EEC) or the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) were required to take full account of the trade interests of other countries and to pursue outward-looking policies in accordance with principles and objectives of GATT.

Compelling as mathematical representations may seem to some interested in the “automaticity” of integration processes, to other empirical theorists they seem anything but obviously relevant. Yet there is a clear trend toward greater use of formal reasoning in both measurement and modeling work on integration processes. Juxtaposing a variety of such integration logics—the mathematical formulae and conceptual abstractions incorporated in assessments of integration progress and regress—should help achieve the major purpose of this article: to introduce students to a variety of possible integration logics, some of their possible interrelationships, and the limitations of some of the simpler ones vis-à-vis current verbal theories of the integration process.

The semi-annual report of the Director-General (Kingsley) covering the period from July 1, 1949 to December 31, 1949 stated that during the second half of 1949 the organization had re-established refugees at an average rate of about 27,800 per month. By December 31, 1949 the total had reached 758,923, of whom 68,778 had been repatriated and 690,145 had resettled in new countries. Late in the year, however, severe reductions in the United States and Australian programs intervened, so that in December only 19,043 were resettled. The last six months of 1949 had emphasized programs implementing decisions of the General Council to extend the life of IRO into 1951, establish a series of date lines in order to keep the organization's responsibilities within the limits of the time and funds at its disposal, intensify and broaden the counselling program to obtain as complete and accurate view possible of the task remaining and to budget up to $22,000,000 for use in solving the “hard core” problem.

The following summary covers the activities of the Security Council at its 707th meeting on December 16, 1955, and from its 709th meeting on December 22, 1955, through its 716th meeting on February 6, 1956.

The 36th session of the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), comprising the 1264th–1303rd meetings, was held in Geneva from July 2, 1963, to August 2, 1963, under the presidency of Mr. A. Patiño (Colombia).

What happens to a public, domestic institution when its authority is delegated to a privately run, transnational institution? I argue that outsourcing traditionally national legal responsibilities to transnational bodies can lead to the stagnation of domestic institutional capacity. I examine this through a study of international commercial arbitration (ICA), a widely used system of cross-border commercial dispute resolution. I argue that ICA provides commercial actors an “exit option” from weak public institutions, reducing pressure on the state to invest in capacity-enhancing reform. I find that the enactment of strong protections for ICA leads to the gradual erosion of the capacity of domestic legal institutions, particularly in countries with already weak legal systems. I test the mechanism driving this dynamic using dispute data from the International Chamber of Commerce. I find that pro-arbitration laws increase the use of international arbitration by national firms, suggesting that firms use ICA as an escape from domestic institutions. This article contributes to debates on globalization and development as well as work on the second-order effects of global governance institutions.

On March 5, 1970, the Treaty on the Nonproliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) went into effect, having been ratified by 47 states including the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty legally bars these three nuclear powers from transferring atomic weapons to nonnuclear states and formally pledges those nonnuclear states signing the treaty to refrain from developing such weapons or acquiring them from other powers. It thus caps a long effort by the United States to inhibit—so long as it could not preclude—the spread of nuclear weapons and to avoid the potential instabilities associated with that spread.