We identified females of six species of leafhoppers (tribe Empoascini), Asymmetrasca decedens (Paoli), Empoasca affinis Nast, E. decipiens Paoli, E. pteridis (Dahlbom), E. vitis Göthe, and Jacobiasca lybica (Bergevin and Zanon), using morphological characters of the ovipositor and isozyme and mitochondrial COI sequence analyses. Useful traits of the ovipositor are tooth morphology, length of the toothed area, form of sculpturing, and number and position of sensilla on the first and second pair of valves. Among the set of enzyme systems assayed, four putative loci, sod, hk-2, est-3, and est-2, together provided reliable diagnostic characters for single species, pairs of species, and groups of species. Analysis of mtCOI sequences revealed differences between the six species of Empoascini, and the neighbour-joining tree separated them into three distinct groups. Phenetic trees elaborated using Nei’s index and the Kimura two-parameter model clustered the six Empoascini species in similar groups.

The semaphorin gene family plays important roles in axonal guidance in vertebrates and invertebrates. Semaphorin 2a, a member of the semaphorin family, belongs to class 2, which is found only in invertebrates. In our study, semaphorin 2a was cloned from the ant Polyrhachis vicina Roger. The full length of P. vicina semaphorin 2a (Pv-sema-2a) is 2763 base pairs (bp) and it contains a 5′-untranslated region (UTR) 92 bp long and a 3′-UTR 521 bp long. The open reading frame of Pv-sema-2a encodes a 716-amino-acid protein with a predicted molecular mass of 81.1 kilodaltons. Real-time quantitative reverse-transcription – polymerase chain reaction indicated that Pv-sema-2a mRNA is differentially expressed during P. vicina development, in the whole bodies as well as the heads of different castes. The high mRNA levels in embryos and pupae suggest that Pv-sema-2a plays an important role in ant development.

Camptopeltesn.gen. is described for three new species: Camptopeltes atratumn. sp. (type species of the genus; type locality Cartago, Costa Rica); Camptopeltes citrinumn. sp. (type locality Yacambo, Venezuela); and Camptopeltes nubilatumn. sp. (type locality Aragua, Venezuela). Camptopeltes is distinguished from other oscinelline genera on the combination of a strongly convex scutum, a trapezoidal scutellum that is deflected dorsally relative to the scutum, a reduced flexure in wing vein CuA1, reduced cephalic bristling, reniform third antennal segment, and thin arista. Although its relationship to the rest of the Oscinellinae is unresolved, it may be closely related to the tribe Elachipterini.

Labena Cresson is a large Gondwanan genus best represented in the Neotropical area. We describe three new species in the Neotropical Labena striata species group: Labena gauldianasp. nov. from Costa Rica and Mexico, Labena yucatanicasp. nov. from Mexico, and Labena iquitosicasp. nov. from Peruvian Amazonia. These species are among the largest and most spectacular Neotropical Ichneumonidae ever collected. We also provide additional descriptive remarks regarding Labena striata Townes and Townes (including intraspecific variation) and an identification key to the six species of the striata group.

Illustrated identification keys are given for the superfamilies/families of insect parasitoids and the subfamilies, genera, and species of Braconidae reared from species of Choristoneura Lederer in the Nearctic Region. Goniozus floridanus (Ashmead) (Chrysidoidea: Bethylidae) represents the third superfamily of Hymenoptera, and Colpoclypeus florus (Walker) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is added to the list of Chalcidoidea recorded from Choristoneura. Fifty species of Braconidae in 18 genera and 9 subfamilies are recorded parasitizing 11 Choristoneura species; almost half belong to the Microgastrinae. Eight braconids (16%) were found for the first time as parasitoids of Choristoneura. The first host record is given for Oncophanes californicus (Ashmead) (Hormiinae). Known insect parasitoids of Choristoneura spp. in the Nearctic Region include 230 species in 106 genera, about 75% of which attack only 1 or 2 Choristoneura species each. An additional 36 species are considered incorrectly associated with Choristoneura, an error rate of 14%. The Banchinae (Ichneumonidae, especially Glypta Gravenhorst), Pimplinae (Ichneumonidae), and Microgastrinae (Braconidae) made up the greatest proportion of parasitoids. No parasitoids have yet been recorded from five Nearctic Choristoneura species.

The potential for mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae), to expand its historical range in North America from west of the continental divide into the eastern boreal forest was assessed on the basis of analyses of the effects of climate and weather on brood development and survival, and key aspects of the interaction of mountain pine beetle with its hosts and associated organisms. Variation in climate suitability and high host susceptibility in the boreal forest create a finite risk of establishment and local persistence of low-level mountain pine beetle populations outside their historical range. Eventually, these populations could become widespread and cause epidemic infestations, creating an ecological pathway eastward through the boreal forest. Such infestations would reduce the commercial value of forests and impose an additional disturbance on native ecological systems.

Within-plant and between-plants distributions of the Cooley spruce gall adelgid, Adelges cooleyi (Gillette), fundatrices were measured in “interior spruce”, Picea glauca × P. engelmannii (Moench) Voss. & Parry (Pinaceae), seed orchards in central British Columbia to develop a quantitative sampling plan. Adelgids (number of fundatrices per shoot) were abundant at the lower and middle crown heights of the tree crowns but scarce at the upper crown height, and more abundant on the ends and central one-third of branches than on the inner portions. The northern and eastern aspects of trees had slightly but significantly more adelgids than did the southern and western aspects, and terminal shoots had more adelgids than did distolateral shoots. Variance was much greater between than within trees. These data were used to create a sampling plan with a sample unit consisting of a single 1-year-old shoot selected from the ends or central area of main branches in the lower or middle portion of each sample tree. Collecting 104 samples required 69 min, and yielded an estimate of the mean number of fundatrices per shoot with a standard error of 10% of the mean.

Two species of Androprosopa Mik are reported from Mexico, one of which is newly described (A. zempoalasp. nov.). This new species is related to a small group of western Nearctic species defined by a pair of posterolateral hook-like epandrial processes.

A new species, Arthula biformis Oh and Lee sp. nov., belonging to the cryptine ichneumonid subtribe Sphecophagina Beirne is described from Korea. The new species is composed of two seasonal forms, overwintering and summer, distinguished by color and some morphological features. The overwintering form is much darker than the summer form. Keys to the genera of Sphecophagina and the known species of Arthula Cameron and photographs of diagnostic characters of both color forms of the new species are provided.

Two full-length cDNA sequences encoding digestive serine proteases (designated as SmPROT-1 and SmPROT-2) were recovered from the midgut of the orange wheat blossom midge, Sitodiplosis mosellana (Géhin) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), in an ongoing expressed sequence tag project. The deduced amino acid sequences shared homology with digestive serine proteases from insect and non-insect species, including conserved regions such as the catalytic triad, active pocket, and conserved structural motifs. Secretory signal peptides in both proteases at the N-terminals indicate that these proteins could function as midgut digestive serine proteases. A phylogenetic analysis grouped SmPROT-1 and SmPROT-2 with trypsin-like and chymotrysin-like serine proteases, respectively. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed that SmPROT-1 and SmPROT-2 were expressed predominantly in the midgut rather than in other tissues (fat body and salivary glands). Expression analyses revealed high mRNA levels for the feeding instars (1st- and 2nd-instar larvae) compared with other stages (neonate, 3rd instar, pupa, and adult). These results provide new insights into the biology of S. mosellana and are discussed in the context of developing alternative control strategies.

We review the Neotropical genus Cartagonum Pic, redescribing C. bernardi Pic and describing two new species, Cartagonum apiubasp. nov. and Cartagonum mayensesp. nov. New collection records, a key to species, and illustrations of somatic and genitalic characters are provided. Species of Cartagonum are now known to be distributed from Colombia to southern Mexico and southeastern Brazil.

Mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (DNA barcode) and nuclear microsatellite flanking region sequences were used to analyse populations of putative “sugarbeet root aphid”, Pemphigus betae Doane, from sites in Alberta, Canada. Three sympatric genotypes were revealed, identified as P. betae, P. populivenae Fitch, and an undetermined third species. All three genotypes formed morphologically indistinguishable galls on the same set of cottonwood (Populus L., Salicaceae) host species, often on the same tree. Gall morphology is frequently used to identify Pemphigus species. Our results indicate that this practice may be unreliable for these three taxa at least.

A molecular and biometric assessment and redescription of Myzodium mimulicola (Drews and Sampson) are provided. New North American host and distributional data are presented, including the first record from Alaska. Myzodium knowltoni (Smith and Robinson) is a junior subjective synonym of M. mimulicola, based on molecular-sequence and morphological evidence. A key to the known Myzodium species (apterae and alatae) is included.

Worldwide biological-control research has shown that the fungal entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschnikoff) is an alternative to chemical insecticides for controlling grasshoppers and locusts. The pathogenicity of two recently discovered isolates of M. anisopliae var. anisopliae Driver and Milner from Canadian soil to the key grasshopper pest Melanoplus bivittatus (Say) and the yellow mealworm, Tenebrio molitor L., was determined by means of laboratory bioassays. Insects were fed a single dose of 105 conidia suspended in sunflower oil on food (a standard-size lettuce wafer). Subsequent feeding activity, movement, and mortality were assessed daily. The isolates were equally pathogenic, and similar in pathogenicity to the industry standard, Green Guard (M. anisopliae var. acridum Driver and Milner). Treatment with the three isolates resulted in 50% grasshopper mortality in 5–6 days and 90% mortality in 6–7 days.

The diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is considered oligophagous on Brassicaceae. We determined the preferences and performance of P. xylostella on canola, Brassica napus L., and flixweed, Descurainia sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl (Brassicaceae), spider-plant, Cleome hassleriana Chod. (Capparaceae), and garden nasturtium, Tropaeolum majus L. (Tropaeolaceae). Females deposited most eggs on B. napus; T. majus was least preferred. The rate of survival from neonate to pupa was highest on B. napus followed by C. hassleriana, T. majus, and D. sophia. The rate of development of female larvae on Brassicaceae was similar to that on non-Brassicaceae; pupal development was slowest on non-hosts. Female pupae were heaviest on B. napus and lightest on D. sophia. Adult females were heaviest when reared on B. napus and lightest on T. majus and D. sophia. Females reared on D. sophia had the smallest forewings; forewing areas for females on other plants were similar. Females reared on B. napus and C. hassleriana lived longer without food than those reared on D. sophia or T. majus. Males reared on T. majus lived for the shortest time without food. This specialist herbivore can exploit a range of food plants, including suboptimal Brassicaceae and species from other families. This trait appears to facilitate survival and reproduction of P. xylostella when preferred food plants are limiting or absent.

Fluctuating asymmetries (FAs) are small random deviations between left- and right-side measurements of normally symmetrical traits in a given organism. Changes in FA have frequently been proposed as biomarkers for organisms exposed to stress during development and may have value for detecting low levels of chemical residues or other stressors in the environment. We tested this hypothesis in three replicated laboratory experiments and failed to find any effect of chemical residues (ivermectin) in cattle dung on levels of FAs (wing and leg traits) for the dung-breeding fly Scathophaga stercoraria L. (Diptera: Scathophagidae). In trying to resolve this discrepancy with previous reports, we found that many studies failed to replicate measurements of FA traits within an experiment, which increases the likelihood of spurious positive results. Furthermore, experiments were rarely replicated either within or between studies, so the repeatability of positive results has usually gone untested. These issues have been raised by others, but are still not being adequately addressed. Discussions regarding the value of FAs as biomarkers will not advance until this is done.

Introgression of cabbage seedpod weevil, Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), resistance from Sinapis alba L. to susceptible Brassica napus L. (Brassicaceae) has produced genetic lines resistant to the weevil in replicated field trials. In the current study, weevil feeding and oviposition on S. alba and on resistant novel lines developed by crossing S. alba × B. napus were less frequent than on susceptible germplasm. Development times were greater and biomass was less when larvae were reared on resistant lines or S. alba. Oocyte development was faster in post-diapause springtime adult female weevils caged on susceptible plants than in those on a resistant line, S. alba, or an early-season food host, Thlaspi arvense L (Brassicaceae). Our results suggest that antixenosis resistance and antibiosis resistance are expressed by resistant lines. These results and previous chemical analyses of these lines also suggest that resistance is potentially influenced by attractive and (or) feeding-stimulant effects of 2-phenylethyl glucosinolate and antifeedant or toxic effects of 1-methoxy-3-indolylmethyl glucosinolate.

Gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (LdMNPV) has been registered as a microbial pest-control product in the United States (Gypchek®) and Canada (Disparvirus®). Similarly, Douglas-fir tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata (McDunnough) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (OpMNPV) is registered in the United States and Canada as TM BioControl-1® and a product derived from TM BioControl-1 (Virtuss®) is also registered in Canada. To determine changes that may have occurred in these products over time, we compared DNA from Gypchek with Disparvirus and DNA from TM BioControl-1 with Virtuss using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. Gypchek and Disparvirus showed the same RFLP banding patterns when viral genomic DNA was digested with BamH I, EcoR V, and Hind III and only a single band difference at approximately 1.6 kilobase (kb) when digested with Bgl II. TM BioControl-1 and Virtuss showed no differences in genomic DNA when digested with Bgl II, Sam I or Hind III. Twelve viral open reading frames (ORFs) were amplified from Gypchek and Disparvirus and nine from TM BioControl-1 and Virtuss by polymerase chain reactions (PCR). The amplified ORFs ranged from highly conserved (polyhedrin) to least conserved (vp91 capsid associated protein). The products were sequenced and the deduced protein products compared. Amino acid sequences deduced from the sequenced PCR products indicated that 8 of the 12 proteins were identical in the two LdMNPV products. The four proteins showing minor sequence variations were DNA polymerase, LEF-8, P74 envelope protein, and VP 91 capsid associated protein. No differences were detected in the protein products deduced from the nine sequenced ORFs from TM BioControl-1 and Virtuss. Comparative RFLP and protein phylogenetic analyses of Gypchek with Disparvirus and TM BioControl-1 with Virtuss revealed little difference between the respective LdMNPV and OpMNPV populations that make up these product pairs.

The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is a destructive insect pest in western Nearctic conifer forests. Currently, British Columbia, Canada, is experiencing the largest recorded outbreak of this insect, including areas that historically have had low climatic suitability for it. We analyzed 26 constitutive resin terpenes in phloem samples from British Columbia lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) populations to test for differential resistance to mountain pine beetle attack, based upon the likelihood of previous exposure to mountain pine beetle. We assessed sampled trees for number of mountain pine beetle attacks, number of pupal chambers, and tree survival the following spring. Significant differences were found when levels of certain terpenes in lodgepole pine populations that had likely experienced substantial mountain pine beetle infestations in the past were compared with those in populations that likely had not experienced large outbreaks of mountain pine beetle. Although we expected southern pine populations to contain more total terpenes than northern populations, owing to higher historical exposure to the beetle, the converse was found. Northern populations generally had higher levels of constitutive terpenes and beetle attack than southern populations. Because several terpenes are kairomones to the mountain pine beetle and also serve as precursors for the synthesis of pheromones, the lower levels of terpenes expressed by lodgepole pines from the historical range of the mountain pine beetle may render them less chemically perceptible to foraging beetles.

Larvae of Abagrotis orbis (Grote) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) are climbing cutworms and can damage grapevines, Vitis vinifera L. (Vitaceae), in early spring by consuming expanding buds. A sex attractant would be useful for monitoring this insect in commercial vineyards. (Z)-7-Tetradecenyl acetate and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate were found in extracts of female abdominal tips. In multiple field experiments, male A. orbis were captured in traps baited with a combination of these two chemicals but not in traps baited with either chemical alone. Males were trapped from mid-September to early October in south-central Washington and south-central British Columbia. Other noctuid moths (Mamestra configurata Walker, Xestia c-nigrum (L.), and Feltia jaculifera (Guenée)) were also captured in traps baited with the A. orbis pheromone and may complicate the use of this lure to monitor A. orbis. Abagrotis discoidalis (Grote) was captured in traps baited with (Z)-7-tetradecenyl acetate but not in traps baited with the two chemicals together.