Botanical preparations, usually from non-host plants, can be used to manipulate the behaviour of insect pests and their natural enemies. In this study, the effects of extracts of Chrysanthemum morifolium, a non-host plant of the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella (Linnaeus), on the olfactory and oviposition responses of this phytophagous insect and on levels of parasitism by its specialist parasitoid Cotesia plutellae (Kurdjumov) were examined, using Chinese cabbage Brassica campestris L. ssp. pekinensis as the test host plant. Olfactometer tests showed that volatiles of chrysanthemum extract-treated host plants were less attractive to P. xylostella females than those from untreated host plants; and in contrast, volatiles of the chrysanthemum extract-treated host plants were more attractive to females of its parasitoid C. plutellae than those from untreated host plants. Oviposition preference tests showed that P. xylostella females laid only a small proportion of their eggs on chrysanthemum extract-treated host plants, while ovipositing parasitoid females parasitized a much higher proportion of host larvae feeding on the treated host plants than on untreated host plants. These results suggest that certain non-host plant compounds, when applied onto a host plant, may render the plant less attractive to a phytophagous insect but more attractive to its parasitoids. Application of such non-host plant compounds can be explored to develop push-pull systems to reduce oviposition by a pest insect and at the same time enhance parasitism by its parasitoids in crops.

Three field trials with endosulfan against coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Ferr.), on both Coffea arabica and C. canephora are described. The insecticide was applied from motorized knapsack sprayers at 20 gal. per acre of an emulsified solution containing 0.2 per cent, active ingredient to the branches bearing the crop.

In two trials endosulfan applied twice at 21-day intervals significantly reduced the numbers of cherries containing living borers and the percentage of damaged cherries at the first pick. In the third trial a single application of endosulfan proved to be as effective as the double one. Increases in yield could not be detected. It was shown, by allowing insects to emerge from caged samples of cherries taken when picking began, that endosulfan did not affect the host/parasite ratio of either H. hampei or Geratitis coffeae (Bez.), nor did it increase the numbers of berry-boring caterpillars.

No off-flavours following treatment could be detected in liquoring trials of robusta coffee beans that were dry processed or pulped and washed.

Laboratory experiments in which adults of H. hampei were exposed above, but out of contact with, filter papers that had been dipped in an emulsified solution containing 0·2 per cent, endosulfan showed that it was acting at least as a partial fumigant and was more effective at 30°C. than at room temperature (21°C); spraying should thus preferably be carried out on warm, sunny days. In view of these findings, and as it is relatively non-toxic, endosulfan is recommended for control of H. hampei in Uganda when heavy attacks occur.

Field strains of housefly collected from animal units were exposed to the insecticide baits, Golden Malrin and Alfacron in laboratory cage tests. Flies were exposed to each bait alone in no-choice tests and to the bait plus sugar in choice tests. Golden Malrin was generally effective against the strains tested in no-choice tests; the lowest recorded knockdown after exposure for 48 h was 82%. Eight strains, however, gave a reduced knockdown when exposed in choice tests (between 60 and 87%). Golden Malrin was ineffective against one strain in choice tests with 7% knockdown at 48 h. With Alfacron 12 strains exhibited knockdown responses between 57 and 87% at 48 h in no-choice tests. In choice tests, 17 strains gave knockdown responses of less than 50% at 48 h. Correlation coefficients were calculated for results from cage tests and levels of resistance to the active ingredients assessed using topical application and feeding test methods. There was a positive correlation between cage and feeding test results. Correlation was, however, less significant with choice test results than with no-choice results. There was no correlation between cage test and topical results. It is suggested that behavioural resistance was responsible for the reduced responses shown by some strains in choice tests compared to no-choice tests. The results demonstrate the importance of using a laboratory method which allows for behavioural differences when monitoring for resistance to insecticides formulated as baits. Behavioural differences in housefly strains should be considered when testing the efficacy of new bait formulations. It is also suggested that insecticide baits should not be used continuously and exclusively to control houseflies in intensive animal units.

Since the cessation of the work of the Luangwa Sleeping Sickness Commission in Northern Rhodesia the investigation into the bionomics of Glossina morsitans has been carried on at Ngoa, in the Mpika Division, on the high ground of the Congo-Zambezi watershed. The work included a study of the influence of various bloods on the breeding capabilities of the fly and further investigation of the breeding habits and haunts of the insect in nature. The following notes embody the results of the work during the eight months from January to August, 1913. The climatic conditions during this period are given in Table 1, the temperatures being those of the laboratory.

Suppression tactics for the citrus stink bug pest, Biprorulus bibax Breddin, were developed and implemented during 1987–1992 in four lemon orchards in southern New South Wales, Australia. Tactics were based on introduction and conservation of natural enemies (principally egg parasitoids), physical or chemical treatment of overwintering populations and strategic low rate applications of a selective insecticide. Estimated adult populations of 10–35,000/1.5 ha and 70–90% fruit damage in untreated crops were reduced to <500/1.5 ha and <5%, respectively, following full implementation of the management programme. Integrated management of B. bibax removes the need for broad-spectrum insecticides to control this pest and lessens the risk of disruption to biological control of other citrus pests.

The effects of nine pesticides commonly used in citrus orchards were tested on adults, larvae and pupae of the parasitoid Eretmocerus debachi Rose & Rosen in the laboratory. All pesticides caused immediate mortality to adult parasitoid females and significant losses in efficiency, if applied to larvae of E. debachi in its host Parabemisia myricae (Kuwana). Only the fungicide captan and the insecticide Mercathion (malathion) were slightly harmful and harmless to the parasitoid larva. Gramoxone (paraquat), Dursban 4 (chlopyrifos-ethyl), Mercathion and Supracide (methidathion) were harmful to E. debachi pupae, while five other pesticides were only moderately harmful or harmless.

The larval stages of two species of Syrphid flies, namely, Eumerus tuberculatus and E. strigatus, are frequently found in rotting narcissus bulbs, in iris and tulip, and in vegetable roots, such as parsnip. The writer has shown that frequently the decay, at least in the narcissus, is directly attributable to the presence of these larvae and that they must therefore be considered to be primary pests. It was further shown that, contrary to current opinion, the predominant species at the time of writing was E. tuberculatus. In passing it may be recorded that this predominance has, in each subsequent year, become more marked, until at the present time E. strigatus has ceased to rank as a bulb pest, at least in South-West England, Holland, and probably the Irish Free State. The larvae of the two species are very similar to one another, and it has not been found possible to separate the species, with any great degree of accuracy, during the immature stages. In the adult form, as shown by Collin, separation is easily effected. In the course of experimental work with these flies a third, and superficially somewhat similar Syrphid, namely Syritta pipiens, L., was frequently bred from decayed narcissus bulbs.

It has been shown that adults of Glossina morsitans Westw. that have fed from a bait ox in their natural environment digest their blood meals more rapidly than others that have emerged and been fed in the laboratory, even when both are maintained under identical environmental conditions after feeding.

In further experiments with G. morsitans in Rhodesia, flies caught in the field and fed in the laboratory were found to lose their ability to digest their meals rapidly. Measurements, made throughout three hunger cycles, of the rate of digestion, as reflected in the rate of excretion, of blood meals by field-caught flies fed on guineapigs in the laboratory showed that this was not significantly different from that of the normal, flied-fed flies during the first two hunger cycles but that during the third it fell to a level comparable to that of flise that emerged and were fed in the laboratory.

It is concluded that whatever may be the events that condition the field flies to digest their meals rapidly in the natural environment, these are repeated with the ingestion of each meal, and that laboratory conditions cause a rapid loss of this greater digestive capability.

Adults of apple maggot fly Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh) of differing physiological states were marked and released in blocks of apple trees ringed by sticky red spheres. Spheres were either unbaited, baited with butyl hexanoate (synthetic host fruit odour) or baited with both butyl hexanoate and ammonium carbonate (synthetic food odour). All trap and lure treatments were compared in the presence or absence of food (bird faeces) in the blocks. Simultaneously, the response of wild immigrant flies to treatments was measured and wild females were dissected to determine state of ovary development. Large proportions (25–40%) of released mature male and female R. pomonella were recovered in blocks having traps baited with butyl hexanoate. Ammonium carbonate did not enhance trap captures and presence of food had little effect on response to synthetic odours by mature R. pomonella. Immature flies of each sex responded weakly to traps and to both types of synthetic lures and may have been arrested in blocks having food. Wild flies of both sexes exhibited a response pattern very similar to mature released flies, regardless of eggload (in the case of wild females). Results indicate that wild R. pomonella immigrating into apple orchards are primarily mature, and not hungry for protein. Behavioural control strategies are discussed in that context.

In an outdoor experimental set-up, the number of Prostephanus truncatus (Horn) flying from maize cobs was recorded over 38 observation weeks. Flight activity in the field was recorded for 50 weeks with three pheromone traps, each placed at c. 100–300 m from the first experimental set-up. Multiple regression analyses revealed that both flight initiation and flight activity were partly influenced by mean temperatures, but were not directly related. Flight initiation was mainly dependent on population density. An additional experiment showed that sex ratios among pheromone trap catches were not correlated with the number of beetles caught; sex ratios were female-biased throughout the year. Seasonal fluctuations in flight activity recorded with pheromone traps are mainly dependent on changes in the number and sizes of beetle populations in a given area, as well as on breeding site availability and suitability.

The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), a destructive pest that originated in South and North America, spread to China in early 2019. Controlling this invasive pest requires an understanding of its population structure and migration patterns, yet the invasion genetics of Chinese S. frugiperda is not clear. Here, using the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, triose phosphate isomerase (Tpi) gene and eight microsatellite loci, we investigated genetic structure and genetic diversity of 16 S. frugiperda populations in China. The Tpi locus identified most S. frugiperda populations as the corn-strains, and a few were heterozygous strains. The microsatellite loci revealed that the genetic diversity of this pest in China was lower than that in South America. Furthermore, we found moderate differentiation among the populations, distinct genetic structures between adjacent populations and abundant genetic resources in the S. frugiperda populations from China sampled across 2 years. The survival rate of S. frugiperda was significantly higher when it was fed on corn leaves than on rice leaves, and the larval stage mortality rate was the highest under both treatments. Our results showed that S. frugiperda probably invaded China via multiple independent introductions and careful pesticide control, continuous monitoring and further studies will be needed to minimize its potential future outbreak.

In the present study predation parameters, i.e. consumption rate, conversion efficiency and growth rate, and total developmental duration of immature stages of two congeneric ladybirds, Coccinella septempunctata (L.) and Coccinella transversalis F., have been evaluated in presence of conspecific and heterospecific fourth instar larval and adult female tracks. We hypothesized that the semiochemicals within larval/adult female tracks might act as foraging/feeding deterrent pheromones (FDPs) and would reduce the predation parameters; and would prolong total developmental duration of ladybird predators. Results of the study positively affirmed our hypothesis. The deterrence in prey consumption and reduction in conversion efficiency and growth rate was density dependent with species-specific variations. Consumption rate, conversion efficiency, and growth rate of larval instars decreased and the total developmental duration of immature stages increased when exposed to an increasing density of zero, two, three, and four conspecific/heterospecific larval/adult female tracks. Between ladybird species, C. septempunctata had higher consumption rate, growth rate, and total developmental durations, whereas conversion efficiency was higher in C. transversalis. Despite the presence of semiochemical tracks as foraging barriers, early instars showed higher conversion efficiencies and growth rates, whereas fourth instars had highest consumption rate in all experimental treatments. The present study, therefore, suggests that semiochemical tracks significantly reduce the predation potential and prolong developmental duration of conspecifics and heterospecifics. They, thus behave as FDP.

A dual molecular and cytogenetic study was performed with the aim to improve the controversial systematic classification of some species of Lamiinae (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The karyotypes of species belonging to genera Morimus, Herophila, Dorcadion, Neodorcadion and Lamia share a number of characters, which differentiate them from other species, belonging to genera Phytoecia, Parmena and Monochamus. The karyotypes of the last three species comprise 20 chromosomes, mostly metacentric or sub-metacentric, as in the presumed Cerambycidae ancestors. The karyotypes of the former species share many characters derived from the Lamiinae ancestors by a number of chromosome fissions and inversions indicating their monophyly. Comparisons of the CO1 gene sequence also show the monophyly of Morimus, Lamia, Herophila and Dorcadion and their distant relationship with others. These convergent results allow us to propose a phylogenetic classification of these genera, which places the monospecific genus Lamia close to Dorcadion, clearly separates Dorcadion and Neodorcadion and places Herophila closer to Morimus than to Dorcadion/Lamia. The genus Morimus is the most derived. CO1 mutations loosely separate the forms M. asper and M. funereus, which have similar karyotypes and behaviour and copulate in captivity. The form M. ganglebaueri may have a funereus X asper hybrid origin.

Surveys for sugarcane stem borers were undertaken in Ethiopia to determine the prevalence and distribution of these and their natural enemies in crops and indigenous host plants. Eldana saccharina Walker was not recovered from sugarcane, but was present in three indigenous wetland sedges, Cyperus papyrus, C. fastigiatus and C. dives in the southern, central and northern part of the country. The latter indigenous host plant was present in waterways adjacent to sugarcane on the commercial sugar estates. The tachinids Schembria eldanae Barraclough and Actia sp. were common parasitoids of E. saccharina larvae in these indigenous sedges. The braconid Dolichogenidea sp. was recovered from E. saccharina larvae in C. dives. Pathogens comprising Beauveria bassiana, Bacillus thuringiensis and Entomophthora sp., were found to be important mortality factors of E. saccharina larvae in the indigenous sedges. The occurrence of E. saccharina in Ethiopia is reported for the first time, and the host plant preferences of the borer and its indigenous natural enemies found during the surveys are recorded. In addition, its potential threat to sugarcane production in Ethiopia is discussed.

Environment-friendly farming techniques seek to increase invertebrate biodiversity in part with the intention of encouraging greater numbers of predators that will help to control crop pests. However, in theory, this effect may be negated if the availability of a greater abundance and diversity of alternative prey diverts predators away from feeding on pests. The hypothesis that access to alternative prey can lead to reduced pest suppression under semi-field conditions was tested. Alternative prey type and diversity were manipulated in 70 mesocosms over 7+ weeks in the presence of the carabid Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger), a known predator of slugs, and reproducing populations of the slug Deroceras reticulatum (Müller). Significantly fewer slugs survived where no alternative prey were provided. Maximum slug numbers and biomass were found in treatments containing either carabids plus a high diversity of alternative prey (many species of earthworm and three of Diptera larvae) or a single additional prey (blowfly larvae, Calliphora vomitoria Linnaeus). In these treatments slug numbers and biomass were as high as in plots lacking predators. The effects of alternative prey were taxon-specific. Alternative prey strongly affected carabid fitness in terms of biomass and egg load. The fittest predators (those with access to high alternative prey diversity or C. vomitoria larvae) reduced slug numbers the least. The mean individual slug weights were greater in treatments with alternative prey than where no alternative prey were provided to the carabids. These results suggest that pests may survive and reproduce more rapidly in patches where predators have access to alternative prey.

European dry-wood termites belong to the genus Kalotermes (Kalotermitidae), one of the two termite genera in Europe. Until the recent description of two new species, Kalotermes italicus in Italy and Kalotermes phoenicae in the eastern Mediterranean area, Kalotermes flavicollis was the only taxon known in this region. The presence of additional entities, suggested by morphological and physiological variation observed in K. flavicollis, was supported by molecular studies revealing four distinct genetic lineages: lineage A, K. flavicollis sensu strictu, from the Aegean area to Italy; lineage B, in Tuscany; lineage SC, in Sardinia and Corsica; lineage SF, in southern France. Lineages A and B may form mixed colonies, suggesting hybridization. To draw a more detailed picture of Kalotermes evolution and biogeography in Europe, we analyzed samples from previously unsampled areas, such as Spain and southern Italy, by means of the highly informative cox1/trnL/cox2 mitochondrial DNA marker. Overall, phylogenetic analyses confirmed previously identified lineages and taxa, but widened the distribution of the lineage SC to the mainland and of the lineage SF to Spain and Portugal. Results further provided evidence for the synonymy between lineage B and K. italicus. Species delimitation analysis suggested that the three K. flavicollis lineages, as well as K. italicus, can be separate taxa. Data also suggest a possible interspecific hybridization between K. italicus and both K. flavicollis lineages A and SC.

Chrysoperla species include well-known predators of aphids and other soft-bodied arthropods. As such, they are considered important biological control agents of herbivorous pests in agroecosystems where many of green lacewings species occur. Despite the high number of species of the genus Chrysoperla, only a few have been assessed for the predation efficiency of their larvae against pests infesting plants, and even fewer are currently marketed for use in biocontrol practice. Difficulties in species identification within the Chrysoperla carnea complex species in particular has been related to varying success of commercial C. carnea s.l. releases in the field. In this study, we assessed the ability of two Chrysoperla species, Chrysoperla agilis a member of the carnea cryptic species group, and Chrysoperla mutata of the pudica group to consume aphid and mealybug individuals and suppress their populations in sweet pepper plants. We found that third-instar larvae of both species were able to consume a high number of aphids (approximately 120 nymphs per larva) and mealybugs (approximately 105 nymphs per larva) within 24 h. Furthermore, the release of second-instar larvae of both C. agilis and C. mutata was shown to be remarkably efficient in suppressing the pest populations in long-term greenhouse experiments. Aphid populations were suppressed by approximately 98% and mealybugs by 78% as compared to control plants. Our results highlight the predation efficiency and the biocontrol potential of two widespread Chrysoperla species for their use in pest control.

The damage caused to cotton by the yellow tea-mite,Hemitarsonemus latus(Banks),was first seen in Uganda in 1945 and is now known throughout the important cotton-growing areas of the country. Experiments on cotton in the Belgian Congo showed that sprays and dusts of several insecticides would control or prevent infestations of H.latus;earlier published work in Ugandasuggested that BHC reduced tea-mite damage and DDT increased it,when both were appliedas sprays from wettable powders.However,tea-mite damage was not noticeable on trials in which single rows of cotton were sprayed with DDT emulsion,or on large-scale trials using DDT formulated as a water-miscible liquid. These trials were all directed against the pest insects Earias spp. and Lygus vosseleri Popp.,the standard rate of application being 1 lb. active ingredientper acre applied four times at ten-day intervals.

An experimental attempt was made to produce a fly-free corridor through a belt of savannah woodland containing the tsetse fly G. swynnertoni.

An area two miles wide and four miles long was treated with a coarse spray of a 4·6 per cent, w/v solution of DDT in Shell Diesoline. The dosage per application was 0·5 gallons per acre, and seven applications were made, at intervals of approximately two weeks, so that the treatment covered two pupal periods.

The fly density had fallen to a very low level by the end of the experiment, and the area remained virtually free from flies for the subsequent two months. An examination of the data suggests, however, that the fly population was maintained largely by immigrant flies, and was certainly subject to wide variations, and it seems certain that the effect of the applications would have been considerably less upon a stable, self-supporting population.

The drop spectrum of the ground deposit had a mass median diameter of 0·35 mm., and the recovery of insecticide in the area was approximately 60 per cent. Leeward and under sides of obstacles did not receive a dose although in some cases dosages were obtained on apparently leeward sides, probably because of local reversals of wind direction.

Sixty-one Culicoides spp. were collected in Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania between January 1966 and December 1967 using light-traps at 35 stations on a NW-SE transect from the Indian Ocean to central Uganda to evaluate the distribution of Culicoides spp. among ecological zones. Most species were confined to one or at least very few similar habitats. The largest number of species (30) occurred in the forest zone, probably because of the many suitable breeding sites, whereas only three species were recorded from the dry bushland zone. Forests also contained more exclusive Culicoides spp., whereas savanna species showed a wider distribution, suggesting that the forest species are less adaptable than others. The disease vectors C. grahamii Aust. and C. pallidipennis C, I. & M. were among the most abundant and widely distributed species.