In search of an adequate model for the human metabolic syndrome, the metabolic characteristics of Wistar rats were analysed after being submitted to different protocols of high fructose ingestion. First, two adult rat groups (aged 90 d) were studied: a control group (C1; n 6) received regular rodent chow (Labina, Purina) and a fructose group (F1; n 6) was fed on regular rodent chow. Fructose was administered as a 10 % solution in drinking water. Second, two adult rat groups (aged 90 d) were evaluated: a control group (C2; n 6) was fed on a balanced diet (AIN-93G) and a fructose group (F2; n 6) was fed on a purified 60 % fructose diet. Finally, two young rat groups (aged 28 d) were analysed: a control group (C3; n 6) was fed on the AIN-93G diet and a fructose group (F3; n 6) was fed on a 60 % fructose diet. After 4–8 weeks, the animals were evaluated. Glucose tolerance, peripheral insulin sensitivity, blood lipid profile and body fat were analysed. In the fructose groups F2 and F3 glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity were lower, while triacylglycerolaemia was higher than the respective controls C2 and C3 (P < 0·05). Blood total cholesterol, HDL and LDL as well as body fat showed change only in the second protocol. In conclusion, high fructose intake is more effective at producing the signs of the metabolic syndrome in adult than in young Wistar rats. Additionally, diet seems to be a more effective way of fructose administration than drinking water.

The aim of the present study was to analyse the changes in body composition of stunted children during a follow-up period and to test the hypothesis of a tendency to accumulate body fat as a consequence of undernutrition early in life. We selected fifty boys and girls aged 11 to 15, who were residents of slums in São Paulo, Brazil. Twenty were stunted (S) and thirty had normal stature (NS). The children's nutritional status and body composition were assessed through anthropometry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, at the beginning of the present study and after 3 years, and changes in lean mass (LM and LM%) and fat mass (FM and FM%) were calculated. Stunted boys accumulated more body fat (FM%: S=1·62%, NS=−3·40%; P=0·003) and gained less lean mass (LM%: S=−1·46, NS=3·21%; P=0·004). Stunted girls gained less lean mass (S=7·87 kg, NS=11·96 kg; P=0·032) and had significantly higher values of FM% at follow-up when compared with their baseline values (P=0·008), whereas non-stunted girls had a non-significant difference in FM% over time (P=0·386). These findings are important to understand the factors involved in the increased prevalence of overweight and obesity among poor populations, which appear to be associated with hunger during infancy and/or childhood.

1. The equation used for calculating heat production of ruminant animals is expressed in a new form, convenient for application to open-circuit calorimetry.

2. It is shown that in open-circuit calorimetry the possible error involved in making the assumption that respiratory quotient is equal to unity is small compared with the possible error involved in neglecting methane production.

3. In open-circuit calorimetry heat production can be predicted with accuracy to within ± 2% solely from the measurement of oxygen concentration and ventilation rate.

1. Twenty heifer calves were allocated to four groups and maintained for 32 weeks on a diet based mainly on barley and straw and containing 4 mg copper/kg. The diet was supplemented with 0 or 800 mg iron/kg and 0 or 5 mg molybdenum/kg.

2. Liver and plasma Cu concentrations, erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1) and plasma caeruloplasmin (EC 1.16.3.1) activities decreased greatly and rapidly in all calves given the Fe or Mo supplements or both. Levels indicative of severe Cu deficiency were attained within 16 weeks. There were no significant differences in values in animals given Fe, Mo or Fe plus Mo.

3. Clinical signs of Cu deficiency developed after 20 weeks in the calves given the Mo supplement. Growth rates were reduced, skeletal lesions developed and hair texture and colour were affected. No such effects were observed in the calves given only the Fe supplement.

4. Plasma and liver Fe concentrations increased in calves given the Fe supplement but were not greatly affected by Mo, even when the calves were severely Cu-deficient.

5. The significance of the effects of Fe and Mo on Cu metabolism are discussed with special regard to the influence of soil ingestion on Cu availability and to the frequent lack of correlation between the Cu status of animals and their clinical condition.

In the present study, we sought to conduct a literature review of randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, which assessed the impact of probiotics intake during pregnancy on the development of eczema in children. A meta-analysis was conducted for comparison of the development of atopic eczema in children whose mothers took probiotics during pregnancy v. placebo. Study selection, quality appraisal and data extraction were performed independently and in duplicate. The studies were rated according to their size in order to calculate the influence of individual studies on the meta-analysis. A total of seven randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials, published between 2001 and 2009, were selected from the PubMed and Ovid databases for the meta-analysis. The meta-analysis was performed with statistical software Stata/SE11.0. The completed meta-analysis of the seven studies shows a significant risk reduction for atopic eczema in children aged 2–7 years by the administration of probiotics during pregnancy (reduction 5·7 %; P = 0·022). However, this effect was only significant for lactobacilli (reduction 10·6 %; P = 0·045), but not for a mixture of various bacterial strains as probiotics (difference 3·06 %, P = 0·204). In conclusion, the meta-analysis shows that the administration of lactobacilli during pregnancy prevents atopic eczema in children aged from 2 to 7 years. However, a mixture of various bacterial strains does not affect the development of atopic eczema, independent of whether they contain lactobacilli or not.

The effects of a high level of dietary fibre (DF) either as arabinoxylan (AX) or resistant starch (RS) on digestion processes, SCFA concentration and pool size in various intestinal segments and on the microbial composition in the faeces were studied in a model experiment with pigs. A total of thirty female pigs (body weight 63·1 (sem 4·4) kg) were fed a low-DF, high-fat Western-style control diet (WSD), an AX-rich diet (AXD) or a RS-rich diet (RSD) for 3 weeks. Diet significantly affected the digestibility of DM, protein, fat, NSP and NSP components, and the arabinose:xylose ratio, as well as the disappearance of NSP and AX in the large intestine. RS was mainly digested in the caecum. AX was digested at a slower rate than RS. The digesta from AXD-fed pigs passed from the ileum to the distal colon more than twice as fast as those from WSD-fed pigs, with those from RSD-fed pigs being intermediate (P< 0·001). AXD feeding resulted in a higher number of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, Roseburia intestinalis, Blautia coccoides–Eubacterium rectale, Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. in the faeces sampled at week 3 of the experimental period (P< 0·05). In the caecum, proximal and mid colon, AXD feeding resulted in a 3- to 5-fold higher pool size of butyrate compared with WSD feeding, with the RSD being intermediate (P <0·001). In conclusion, the RSD and AXD differently affected digestion processes compared with the WSD, and the AXD most efficiently shifted the microbial composition towards butyrogenic species in the faeces and increased the large-intestinal butyrate pool size.

1. Rats were fed on a control semi-synthetic diet containing insoluble cellulose (Solkafloc; 100 g/kg; control group) as the only source of dietary fibre, or on one of two test diets containing the same quantity of either guar gum or carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Animals in the test groups showed similar growth rates and food intakes, which were significantly lower than those of the control group. The CMC group produced frequent poorly formed faeces throughout the 21 d feeding period.

2. The small intestines of animals in both test groups were significantly longer than those of the control group at the end of the study. The caeca were also enlarged and heavier, particularly in the CMC-fed group.

3. The rate of production of mucosal cells was increased in the small and large intestines of both test groups. The CMC-fed group exhibited a particularly high rate in the distal ileum, where the rate of cell divisions per crypt was over three times greater than at the same site in the control group. The increased proliferation was associated with a significant lengthening of the crypts and an approximately 25% increase in the basal width of the villi.

4. Mucosal alkaline phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.1) and lactase (EC 3.2.1.23) levels were lower than those of the control group at proximal and distal sites in the small intestines of both CMC- and guar-gum-fed groups. Altered spatial distributions of maltase (EC 3.2.1.20) and sucrase (EC 3.2.1.48) activities were also observed in these animals.

5. The consumption of at least some gel-forming polysaccharides evidently leads to significant physiological adaptation in the intestinal mucosa of rats, associated with alterations in mucosal cell proliferation. The mechanism underlying this response appears not to be entirely dependent on the physical properties of the chyme.

The adhesion of Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG to human enterocyte-like Caco-2 cells was not inhibited by eight carbohydrates tested, namely N-acetyl-glucosamine, galactose, glucose, fructose, fucose, mannose, methyl-α-D-mannopyranoside and sucrose. The degree of hydrophobicity predicted the adhesion of L. rhamnosus GG to Caco-2 cells. L. rhamnosus GG, however, was able to compete with Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. of low hydrophobicity and high adhesin–receptor interaction for adhesion to Caco-2 cells. The interference of adhesion of these gastrointestinal (GI) bacteria by L. rhamnosus GG was probably through steric hindrance, and the degree of inhibition was related to the distribution of the adhesin receptors and hydrophobins on the Caco-2 surface. A Carbohydrate Index for Adhesion (CIA) was used to depict the binding property of adhesins on bacteria surfaces. CIA was defined as the sum of the fraction of adhesion in the presence of carbohydrates, with reference to the adhesion measured in the absence of any carbohydrate. The degree of competition for receptor sites between Lactobacillus casei Shirota and GI bacteria is a function of their CIA distance. There were at least two types of adhesins on the surface of L. casei Shirota. The study provides a scientific basis for the screening and selection of probiotics that compete with selective groups of pathogens for adhesion to intestinal surfaces. It also provides a model for the characterisation of adhesins and adhesin–receptor interactions.

In this study, we chose a carnivorous fish, turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.), to examine its nutrient-sensing and metabolic responses after ingestion of diets with fishmeal (FM), or 45 % of FM replaced by soyabean meal (34·6 % dry diet) balanced with or without essential amino acids (EAA) to match the amino acid profile of FM diet for 30 d. After a 1-month feeding trial, fish growth, feed efficiency and nutrient retention were markedly reduced by soyabean meal-incorporated (SMI) diets. Compared with the FM diet, SMI led to a reduction of postprandial influx of free amino acids, hypoactivated target of rapamycin signalling and a hyperactivated amino acid response pathway after refeeding, a status associated with reduced protein synthesis, impaired postprandial glycolysis and lipogenesis. These differential effects were not ameliorated by matching an EAA profile of soyabean meal to that of the FM diet through dietary amino acid supplementation. Therefore, this study demonstrated that the FM diet and SMI diets led to distinct nutrient-sensing responses, which in turn modulated metabolism and determined the utilisation efficiency of diets. Our results provide a new molecular explanation for the role of nutrient sensing in the inferior performance of aquafeeds in which FM is replaced by soyabean meal.

Oligosaccharides are present in human milk in large amounts and in a high variety. We have previously shown that these oligosaccharides are strong inhibitors of proliferation and inducers of differentiation in intestinal cell lines. To elucidate the molecular mechanism, we investigated the influence on cell cycle events via flow cytometry and expression levels by using quantitative real-time RT–PCR. Human intestinal cells, i.e. HT-29, HIEC and Caco-2 cells, were exposed to neutral or acidic human milk oligosaccharides. Both fractions induced a concentration-dependent G2/M arrest. Cell cycle analysis for HT-29 revealed 37 % of cells in G1 and 35 % in G2/M (neutral oligosaccharides) and incubation with acidic oligosaccharides led to 42 % cells in G1 and 40 % in G2/M. In control experiments without oligosaccharides we found 71 % of cells to be in G1 and 17 % in G2/M. This G2/M arrest was associated with changes in mRNA expression of cyclin A and B. A G2/M arrest with concomitant alterations of cell cycle gene expression could also be shown for HIEC and Caco-2 cells. Analysing the expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21cip1 and p27kip1 and the tumour suppressor p53 we observed that the expression of p21cip1 was p53-independent and necessary for arresting cells in the G2/M phase, while p27kip1 was associated with differentiation effects. Both neutral and acidic human milk oligosaccharides were able to induce epidermal growth factor receptor, extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 and p38 phosphorylation. These results suggest that oligosaccharides from human milk inhibited intestinal cell proliferation and altered cell cycle dynamics by affecting corresponding regulator genes and mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling.

Diets high in glycaemic index (GI) or glycaemic load (GL) have been hypothesised to increase the risks of certain cancers by increasing blood glucose or insulin concentrations. We aimed to conduct a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies to evaluate the association between GI or GL and diabetes-related cancers (DRC), including bladder, breast, colon–rectum, endometrium, liver and pancreas, which are associated with an increased risk for diabetes, and prostate cancer, which is associated with a reduced risk for diabetes. We searched Pubmed, EMBASE and MEDLINE databases up to September 2011 and reference lists of relevant articles. Relative risks (RR) and 95 % CI for the highest v. the lowest categories were extracted and pooled using a random-effects model. Thirty-six prospective cohort studies with a total of 60 811 DRC cases were included in the present meta-analysis. In a comparison of the highest and lowest categories, the pooled RR of DRC were 1·07 (95 % CI 1·04, 1·11; n 30) for GI and 1·02 (95 % CI 0·96, 1·08; n 33) for GL. In an analysis of site-specific cancer risks, we found significant associations for GI in relation to breast cancer (RR 1·06; 95 % CI 1·02, 1·11; n 11) and colorectal cancer (RR 1·08; 95 % CI 1·00, 1·17; n 9 studies). GL was significantly associated with the risk of endometrial cancer (RR 1·21; 95 % CI 1·07, 1·37; n 5). In conclusion, the findings of the present study suggest a modest-to-weak association between a diet that induces a high glucose response and DRC risks.

1. Four pigs initially of 30 kg live weight were surgically prepared with two re-entrant cannulas in the jejunum 1.0 m apart which allowed an isolated loop to be formed through which solutions were perfused. 51Cr-EDTA was used as a marker for measuring net secretion or absorption.

2. A new Ringer solution was made, the ionic content of which resembled more closely that found in the jejunum of pigs given similar diets, than Krebs-Ringer solution.

3. The absorption of glucose and water from Krebs-Ringer and new Ringer solutions was compared.

4. The effect of guar gum on the absorption of glucose and water from solutions of glucose and maltose was studied.

5. There was a trend (not significant) for greater absorption of glucose and water from the new Ringer solution than from the Κ rebs-Ringer solution.

6. Guar gum significantly reduced the net absorption of glucose from glucose or maltose solutions from 74.2 to 41.4% (P < 0.001) and 71.1 to 35.0% (P < 0.001) respectively.

7. Guar gum significantly reduced the net absorption of water from the glucose solution from 42.7 to 8.3% (P < 0.01) and from the maltose solution from 49.2 to 5.1% (P < 0.001).

8. The lack of differences between the absorption of glucose from solutions of glucose or maltose suggested that maltase (EC 3.2.1.20) activity was not inhibited to the extent that this limited the rate of glucose absorption.

The proportion of long-chain polyunsaturated derivatives of linoleic and linolenic acids in the erythrocyte lipids of infants fed a cow's milk formula was lower than in breast-fed infants. Although the formula provided only 0.55% of the total energy as linoleic acid, essential fatty acid deficiency was not detected; the triene:tetraene ratio was 0.09.

Fe supplementation is a common strategy to correct Fe-deficiency anaemia in children; however, it may modify the gut microbiota and increase the risk for enteropathogenic infection. In the present study, we studied the impact of Fe supplementation on the abundance of dominant bacterial groups in the gut, faecal SCFA concentration and gut inflammation in children living in rural South Africa. In a randomised, placebo-controlled intervention trial of 38 weeks, 6- to 11-year-old children with Fe deficiency received orally either tablets containing 50 mg Fe as FeSO4 (n 22) for 4 d/week or identical placebo (n 27). In addition, Fe-sufficient children (n 24) were included as a non-treated reference group. Faecal samples were analysed at baseline and at 2, 12 and 38 weeks to determine the effects of Fe supplementation on ten bacterial groups in the gut (quantitative PCR), faecal SCFA concentration (HPLC) and gut inflammation (faecal calprotectin concentration). At baseline, concentrations of bacterial groups in the gut, faecal SCFA and faecal calprotectin did not differ between Fe-deficient and Fe-sufficient children. Fe supplementation significantly improved Fe status in Fe-deficient children and did not significantly increase faecal calprotectin concentration. Moreover, no significant effect of Fe treatment or time × treatment interaction on the concentrations of bacterial groups in the gut or faecal SCFA was observed compared with the placebo treatment. Also, there were no significant differences observed in the concentrations of any of the bacterial target groups or faecal SCFA at 2, 12 or 38 weeks between the three groups of children when correcting for baseline values. The present study suggests that in African children with a low enteropathogen burden, Fe status and dietary Fe supplementation did not significantly affect the dominant bacterial groups in the gut, faecal SCFA concentration or gut inflammation.

Nutritional requirements for vitamin D during pregnancy have been inadequately described, and there are conflicting data on the impact of gestation on vitamin D status. In the present study, we conducted a longitudinal analysis of total and free (unbound) serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D), vitamin D-binding protein (DBP) and albumin concentrations in a random sample of thirty women from the Screening for Pregnancy Endpoints Ireland pregnancy cohort study at 15, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36 and 40 weeks of gestation and at 2 months postpartum. Concentrations of serum 25(OH)D, DBP and albumin were determined, and free 25(OH)D was calculated from the concentrations of total 25(OH)D, DBP and albumin. Serum albumin concentration decreased during pregnancy (P< 0·001), with a nadir at 36 weeks (P< 0·005), during which the concentration was approximately 80 % of the postnatal concentration. Serum DBP concentration increased during pregnancy and at 28 weeks of gestation, which was almost double the postnatal level (P< 0·001). Total and free 25(OH)D concentrations decreased (both P< 0·005) as pregnancy progressed, and both were lowest at 36 weeks of gestation. At 15 weeks, 10 and 63 % of the women had serum 25(OH)D concentration < 30 and 50 nmol/l, respectively, which increased to 53 and 80 % at 36 weeks of gestation. The time course of decreasing concentrations of 25(OH)D during gestation among women recruited during May–July, who delivered between October and November, and among those recruited in August–September, who delivered between February and March, was similar. The lower percentage of free 25(OH)D during pregnancy is mainly due to increased DBP.

1. A technique for the separation and colorimetric estimation of 2, 4-diaminopimelic acid (DAP) using automated ion-exchange chromatography coupled with an acid ninhydrin detection system is described.

2. Only traces of DAP were found in rumen protozoa and no DAP was detected in rumen fluid prepared by ultracentrifugation or dialysis.

3. The concentration of DAP in rumen bacteria from sheep on a constant feeding regimen, and the ratio of nitrogen to DAP for these bacteria were found to be constant over a 3-month period.

4. The method has proved suitable for the estimation of bacterial N in the duodenal digesta of ruminants.

5. The contribution of bacterial N to the total N leaving the abomasum of a lactating cow fitted with a permanent re-entrant cannula in the duodenum was found to be 50%.

A positive energy balance (energy intake>energy expenditure), in which total fat intake plays an important role, is commonly regarded as a major factor contributing to obesity. Adipose tissue development, i.e. both size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia), is stimulated by high dietary fat intake during early postnatal development, a susceptibility that now appears to continue well into adulthood. Recent human and animal studies suggest that by altering rates of adipocyte differentiation and proliferation, differences in the composition of dietary fat may also contribute to adipose tissue development. At least in rodent models, the relative intake of n-6 to n-3 PUFA is clearly emerging as a new factor in this development. In these models, higher linoleate intake raises tissue arachidonic acid, which increases prostacyclin production and, in turn, stimulates signalling pathways implicated in adipogenesis. Signalling pathways stimulated by arachidonic acid probably include phospholipase and/or cyclo-oxygenase activation and may be linked as much to relatively low intake of n-3 PUFA as to excessive dietary linoleate. One factor potentially contributing to oversight about the apparent role of dietary n-6 PUFA (especially excess dietary linoleate) in adipose tissue development is the historical overestimation of linoleate requirements and the enthusiasm for higher intake of ‘essential fatty acids’. More research is needed to address whether disequilibration of dietary PUFA intake contributes to the risk of obesity in humans.

The objective of this study was to provide data on malnutrition prevalence in hospitals, nursing homes and home-care organisations in The Netherlands in a nationally representative sample, and to assess the factors such as age, sex, time since admission, ward type and disease for identifying patients at high risk of malnutrition. A cross-sectional, multi-centre design with a standardised questionnaire was used to measure the prevalence of malnutrition. Nutritional status was assessed by BMI, undesired weight loss and nutritional intake. In this study, 12 883 patients were included. The prevalence of malnutrition was the highest in hospitals (23·8 %), followed by home-care organisations (21·7 %) and nursing homes (19·2 %). Logistic regression analysis revealed no association with age, time since admission and ward type. Being female was associated with malnutrition only in nursing homes. Blood diseases, gastrointestinal tract diseases, infection, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, dementia and cancer were the factors associated with malnutrition in hospitals. Dementia was associated with malnutrition in nursing homes, while gastrointestinal tract diseases, diabetes mellitus and cancer were the associated factors in home care. This study shows that malnutrition is still a substantial problem in hospitals, nursing homes and home care in The Netherlands. Malnutrition is a problem for more than one in five patients. Despite growing attention to the problem, more continued alertness is required.

The present study investigated the effects of dietary arginine (Arg) supplementation on intestinal structure and functionality in broiler chickens subjected to coccidial challenge. The present study was a randomised complete block design employing a 3 × 2 factorial arrangement (n 8) with three dietary concentrations of Arg (11·1, 13·3 and 20·2 g/kg) with or without coccidial vaccine challenge (unchallenged and coccidial challenge). On day 14, birds were orally administered with coccidial vaccine or saline. On day 21, birds were killed to obtain jejunal tissue and mucosal samples for histological, gene expression and mucosal immunity measurements. Within 7 d of the challenge, there was a decrease in body-weight gain and feed intake, and an increase in the feed:gain ratio (P< 0·05). Jejunal inflammation was evidenced by villus damage, crypt dilation and goblet cell depletion. Coccidial challenge increased mucosal secretory IgA concentration and inflammatory gene (iNOS, IL-1β, IL-8 and MyD88) mRNA expression levels (P< 0·05), as well as reduced jejunal Mucin-2, IgA and IL-1RI mRNA expression levels (P< 0·05). Increasing Arg concentration (1) increased jejunal villus height (P< 0·05) and linearly increased jejunal crypt depth (P< 0·05); (2) quadratically increased mucosal maltase activity (P< 0·05) and linearly decreased mucosal secretory IgG concentration (P< 0·05) within the coccidiosis-challenged groups; and (3) linearly decreased jejunal Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mRNA expression level (P< 0·05) within the coccidiosis-challenged groups. The mRNA expression of mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) complex 1 pathway genes (mTOR and RPS6KB1) and the anti-apoptosis gene Bcl-2 quadratically responded to increasing dietary Arg supplementation (P< 0·05). These results indicate that dietary Arg supplementation attenuates intestinal mucosal disruption in coccidiosis-challenged chickens probably through suppressing TLR4 and activating mTOR complex 1 pathways.