Human milk fat is specially tailored to supply the developing infant with adequate and balanced nutrients. The present study aimed to quantify the composition of fatty acids, tocopherols and carotenoids in human milk, with special emphasis on the lactational changes. Colostrum, transitional and mature milk samples were collected longitudinally from the same forty-two healthy, well-nourished Chinese mothers. Fatty acids were quantified by GC with carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) and tocopherols (α-, γ-tocopherol) determined by HPLC. Total fatty acid (TFA) content increased from 15·09 g/l in colostrum to 32·57 g/l in mature milk with the percentages of DHA and arachidonic acid (ARA) decreased. The ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA and ARA:DHA remained constant during lactation at about 11:1 and 1·3:1, respectively. Both α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol decreased over lactation with the ratio of α-:γ-tocopherol declined significantly from 7·21:1 to 4·21:1 (P < 0·001). Carotenoids all dropped from colostrum to mature milk as the less polar carotenes dropped by 88·67 %, while xanthophylls only dropped by 35·92 %. Lutein was predominated in both transitional and mature milk carotenoids (51·64–52·49 %), while colostrum carotenoids were mainly composed of lycopene (32·83 %) and β-carotene (30·78 %). The concentrations of tocopherols and xanthophylls but not carotenes were positively associated with TFA content in milk. These results suggested that colostrum and mature milk contained divergent lipid profiles and selective transfer mechanisms related to polarity might be involved. The present outcomes provide new insights for future breast-feeding studies, which also add in scientific evidences for the design of both initial and follow-on infant formulas.

The timing of feed intake can alter circadian rhythms of peripheral tissues. Milk synthesis displays a daily rhythm across several species, but the effect of feeding time on these rhythms is poorly characterised. The objective of this experiment was to determine if the time of feed intake modifies the daily patterns of milk synthesis, plasma metabolites and body temperature in dairy cows. Sixteen lactating Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of the two treatment sequences in a cross-over design with 17 d periods. Treatments included day-restricted feeding (DRF; feed available from 07.00 to 23.00 hours) and night-restricted feeding (NRF; feed available from 19.00 to 11.00 hours). Cows were milked every 6 h on the last 7 d of each period, and blood samples were collected to represent every 4 h over the day. Peak milk yield was shifted from morning in DRF to evening in NRF, while milk fat, protein and lactose concentration peaked in the evening in DRF and the morning in NRF. Plasma glucose, insulin, NEFA and urea nitrogen concentration fit daily rhythms in all treatments. Night feeding increased the amplitude of glucose, insulin and NEFA rhythms and shifted the daily rhythms by 8 to 12 h (P < 0·05). Night feeding also phase-delayed the rhythm of core body temperature and DRF increased its amplitude. Altering the time of feed availability shifts the daily rhythms of milk synthesis and plasma hormone and metabolite concentrations and body temperature, suggesting that these rhythms may be entrained by food intake.

Flaxseed oil is rich in α-linolenic acid (ALA), which is the metabolic precursor of EPA and DHA. The present study investigated the effect of flaxseed oil supplementation on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced muscle atrophy and carbohydrate oxidation impairment in a piglet model. Twenty-four weaned pigs were used in a 2 × 2 factorial experiment including dietary treatment (5 % maize oil v. 5 % flaxseed oil) and LPS challenge (saline v. LPS). On day 21 of treatment, the pigs were injected intraperitoneally with 100 μg/kg body weight LPS or sterile saline. At 4 h after injection, blood, gastrocnemius muscle and longissimus dorsi muscle were collected. Flaxseed oil supplementation increased ALA, EPA, total n-3 PUFA contents, protein:DNA ratio and pyruvate dehydrogenase complex quantity in muscles (P < 0·05). In addition, flaxseed oil reduced mRNA expression of toll-like receptor (TLR) 4 and nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain protein (NOD) 2 and their downstream signalling molecules in muscles and decreased plasma concentrations of TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-8, and mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 (P < 0·05). Moreover, flaxseed oil inclusion increased the ratios of phosphorylated protein kinase B (Akt) 1:total Akt1 and phosphorylated Forkhead box O (FOXO) 1:total FOXO1 and reduced mRNA expression of FOXO1, muscle RING finger (MuRF) 1 and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 4 in muscles (P < 0·05). These results suggest that flaxseed oil might have a positive effect on alleviating muscle protein loss and carbohydrates oxidation impairment induced by LPS challenge through regulation of the TLR4/NOD and Akt/FOXO signalling pathways.

The effect of holly polyphenols (HP) on intestinal inflammation and microbiota composition was evaluated in a piglet model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced intestinal injury. A total of twenty-four piglets were used in a 2 × 2 factorial design including diet type and LPS challenge. After 16 d of feeding with a basal diet supplemented with or without 250 mg/kg HP, pigs were challenged with LPS (100 μg/kg body weight) or an equal volume of saline for 4 h, followed by analysis of disaccharidase activities, gene expression levels of several representative tight junction proteins and inflammatory mediators, the SCFA concentrations and microbiota composition in intestinal contents as well as proinflammatory cytokine levels in plasma. Our results indicated that HP enhanced intestinal disaccharidase activities and reduced plasma proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-α and IL-6 in LPS-challenged piglets. Moreover, HP up-regulated mRNA expression of intestinal tight junction proteins such as claudin-1 and occludin. In addition, bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequencing showed that HP altered hindgut microbiota composition by enriching Prevotella and enhancing SCFA production following LPS challenge. These results collectively suggest that HP is capable of alleviating LPS-triggered intestinal injury by improving intestinal disaccharidase activities, barrier function and SCFA production, while reducing intestinal inflammation.

Early malnutrition, the first environmental cause of intra-uterine growth restriction, impairs development of the thymus. Alterations of the thymic structure and function are reported at young ages in murine and ovine models. However, descriptions of thymic consequences of fetal malnutrition at adulthood are scarce. The present study investigates thymic structure, protein expression and cell selection process observed at postnatal day 180 (PND180) in male offspring of rats exposed to maternal low-protein diet (mLPD) compared with control diet during gestation. The thymic index was lower in adult offspring exposed to mLPD (P < 0·05). The thymic cortico-medullar ratio was lower in adult offspring exposed to mLPD (P < 0·05). At PND180, the protein expression of the lymphotoxin β receptor (P < 0·05), the autoimmune regulator (P < 0·05) and Forkhead Box P3 (FoxP3; P < 0·05) was all significantly lower in the mLPD group. The CD4+:CD8+ single-positive thymocyte subpopulation ratio and CD4+:CD8+ lymphocyte subpopulation ratio were increased in the mLPD group (P < 0·05). Among CD3+ lymphocytes, the proportions of CD4+CD8+ double-positive lymphocytes, CD31+ recent thymic emigrants and CD4+FoxP3+ lymphocytes were not significantly different between mLPD and control groups. These findings suggest mLPD during gestation induced long-lasting alterations in the development of thymic structure and thymic cell maturation and selection process in adult male rat offspring.

Diabetes is a common chronic disease with various complications. The present study was conducted to determine the association of plant-based diet index (PDI) and dietary acid load (DAL) with sleep status as well as mental health in type 2 diabetic women. In this cross-sectional study, a validated FFQ was used to assess dietary intakes of 230 diabetic patients. We created a whole PDI, healthful PDI (hPDI) and unhealthful PDI (uPDI). DAL was calculated based on potential renal acid load and net endogenous acid production method. The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index and twenty-one-item Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale were used to assess sleep and mental health disorders, respectively. Participants in the top group of uPDI had greater risk of poor sleep (OR 6·47, 95 % CI 2·75, 15·24). However, patients who were in the top group of hPDI had a lower risk of sleep problems (OR 0·28, 95 % CI 0·13, 0·62). Participants in the top group of uPDI had greater risk of depression, anxiety and stress (OR 9·35, 95 % CI 3·96, 22·07; OR 4·74, 95 % CI 2·28, 9·85; OR 4·24, 95 % CI 2·14, 8·38, respectively). In conclusion, participants with higher DAL scores and patients who adhered to animal-based diets rather than plant-based diets were more likely to be poor sleepers and have mental health disorders.

Healthy diet has been linked to better age-related functioning, but evidence on the relationship of diet quality in late midlife and measures of physical capability in later life is limited. Research on potential sex differences in this relationship is scarce. The aim was to investigate the prospective association between overall diet quality, as assessed by the Healthy Eating Index-2015 (HEI-2015) at 60–64 years and measures of walking speed 7 years later, among men and women from the Insight 46, a neuroscience sub-study of the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development. Diet was assessed at 60–64 years using 5-d food diaries, from which total HEI-2015 was calculated. At 69–71 years, walking speed was estimated during four 10-m walks at self-selected pace, using inertial measurement units. Multivariable linear regression models with sex as a modifier, controlling for age, follow-up, lifestyle, health/social variables and physical performance, were used. The final sample consists of 164 women and 167 men (n 331). Women had higher HEI-2015 and slower walking speed than men. A 10-point increase in HEI-2015 was associated with faster walking speed among women (B 0·024, 95 % CI 0·006, 0·043), but not men. The association remained significant in the multivariable model (B 0·021, 95 % CI 0·003, 0·040). In women, higher diet quality in late midlife is associated with faster walking speed. A healthy diet in late midlife is likely to contribute towards better age-related physical capability, and sex differences are likely to affect this relationship.

Studies have suggested that meal timing plays a role in nutritional health, but this subject has not been sufficiently studied in pregnant women. We analysed the effect that timing of food intake has on eating patterns, diet quality and weight gain in a prospective cohort study with 100 pregnant women. Data were collected once per trimester: 4th–12th, 20th–26th and 30th–37th weeks. Food intake was evaluated using three 24-h dietary recalls, which were used to assess eating patterns and diet quality. Distribution of energy and macronutrient intake throughout the day was considered eating patterns. Diet quality was assessed using the Brazilian Healthy Eating Index-Revised. Weight gain was evaluated during each trimester. Women were classified as early or late timing of the first and last eating episodes if these values were below or above the median of the population, respectively (first eating episode = 08.38 hours; last eating episode = 20.20 hours). Generalised estimating equation models adjusted for confounders were used to determine the effects of timing of the first and last eating episodes (groups) and gestational trimesters (time) (independent variable) on eating patterns, diet quality and weight gain (dependent variables). Early eaters of the first eating episode have a higher percentage of energy and carbohydrate intake in morning and a lower at evening meals. They also have a better diet quality for fruit components when compared with late eaters of the first eating episode. Our results emphasise the importance of considering meal timing in the nutritional antenatal guidelines to promote maternal–fetal health.

Little information is known about the influence of altitude on child growth in Ethiopia, where most people live in highlands. We investigated the relation of residential altitude with growth faltering (stunting) of infants and young children in Ethiopia. We also examined whether the altitude–growth relationship was independent of the influence of the dietary and non-dietary determinants of growth. We used the data of 26 976 under-5-year-old children included in the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Surveys, conducted from 2005 to 2016. The samples were recruited following a two-stage cluster sampling strategy. Stunting was defined by height-for-age <−2 z-scores. The relationship between residential altitude and stunting was examined by running multiple logistic regression analysis, controlling the effect of covariate dietary and non-dietary variables. The residential altitude of the study participants ranged from −116 to 4500 m above sea level (masl). There was a significant and progressive increase in the prevalence and odds of stunting with increasing altitude (P < 0·001), irrespective of the dietary and non-dietary predictors of stunting. The prevalence of stunting was lowest in lowlands (39 %) and highest in highlands (47 %). Compared with altitude <1000 masl, the odds of stunting was 1·41 times higher at altitude ≥2500 masl (OR 1·41, 95 % CI 1·16, 1·71) and 1·29 times higher at altitude 2000–2499 masl (OR 1·29, 95 % CI 1·11, 1·49). Children living in highlands might be at a higher risk of poor growth. Further studies are warranted to understand the mechanism behind the observed altitude–stunting link and identify strategies to compensate for the growth-faltering effect of living in highlands.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is one of the major diseases of our times. Besides being a considerable inconvenience for the patient, the associated healthcare expenses are tremendous. One of the cornerstones of T2DM prevention is a healthy diet, including a variety of fruits and vegetables. Apples are touted to have health benefits, and the apple polyphenol, phloridzin, has gained interest in recent years as it can reduce intestinal sugar uptake by inhibition of the Na/glucose cotransporter 1. By researching the amount of phloridzin in different food sources and linking them to their consumption data, we could estimate the average and high-level phloridzin consumption in Europe. On average, European people consume 0·7–7·5 mg/d phloridzin, the main contributors being apples and apple juice. High-level consumers may get up to 52 mg/d of phloridzin. Older people are more at risk of developing T2DM, yet they consume less phloridzin than adolescents and adults, as determined by our survey. Management of blood glucose levels might be improved by the consumption of phloridzin, as has been shown in recent clinical trials; these trials used phloridzin-enriched apple extract at doses exceeding those from normal food consumption. There are, however, indications that consumption of average to high levels of phloridzin via food might also contribute to reduced sugar load and a reduction in T2DM risk.

The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating pattern has been shown to reduce blood pressure (BP) in previous clinical trials. In the PREMIER study, an established behavioural intervention, with or without DASH, promoted greater weight loss than an advice-only control group, but effects of the DASH intervention on BP were weaker. In these analyses, PREMIER data were used to evaluate whether change in dairy product or fruit and vegetable (FV) intake during the first six intervention months impacted changes in weight and/or BP. Study participants were classified as having low or high intakes of dairy products (<1·5 v. ≥1·5 servings/d) and FV (<5 v. ≥5 servings/d) at baseline and 6 months. For dairy products, in particular, participants with higher baseline intakes tended to decrease their intakes during the intervention. In these analyses, subjects consuming <1·5 dairy servings/d at baseline whose intake increased during the intervention lost more weight than those whose intake decreased or remained low throughout (10·6 v. 7·0 pounds (4·8 v. 3·2 kg) lost, respectively, P = 0·002). The same was true for FV intake (11·0 v. 5·9 pounds (5·0 v. 2·7 kg) lost, P < 0·001). We also found synergistic effects of dairy products and FV on weight loss and BP reduction. Specifically, subjects who increased their intakes of dairy products and also consumed ≥5 servings of FV/d lost more weight and had greater reductions in BP than other groups; in addition, higher FV intakes had the greatest benefit to BP among those consuming more dairy products. These results provide evidence that the DASH pattern was most beneficial to individuals whose baseline diet was less consistent with DASH.