Flystrike (cutaneous myiasis) in sheep has the potential to have a major impact on the welfare of significant numbers of sheep worldwide, but particularly in Australia. The main control method used in Australia, the mulesing operation to remove folds of skin from the hindquarters of the sheep, is effective in controlling the disease, but will be terminated from 2010 as a result of concerns that the operation itself has too great a negative impact on sheep welfare. Alternative treatment methods are considered, and it is proposed that they need to be appraised for each farm separately, based on the conditions prevailing and the potential to apply the different treatments. Sheep are predisposed to flystrike if their fleece is wet or contaminated with faeces or urine. Monitoring and awareness of the weather conditions will enable farmers to strategically treat their sheep with insecticides, or to observe them and treat affected animals more regularly. Frequent removal of wool by crutching, dagging and shearing will aid wool desiccation after rainfall and decrease the likelihood of fleece contamination with excreta. Some control of diarrhoea can be achieved by good grazing management and treatment of diseases that predispose sheep to the disorder. Reducing fly populations can be achieved by the use of traps, and parasitoid wasps also offer some promise. Alternative methods of removing wool and wrinkles from the hindquarters of sheep, including the topical application of quarternary ammonium compounds, phenols, caustic soda or plastic clips, have yet to be proven to be effective, without severely impacting on the welfare of the animal as well as compromising operator safety. In the long term, the breeding of sheep without wrinkles or wool on their hindquarters offers the most likely method of control, although a small proportion of sheep are affected on other parts of their body.

The prevalence and risks for abnormal gait in finishing pigs (Sus scrofa), gilts and pregnant sows from a representative cross-section of indoor and outdoor herds in the United Kingdom were investigated. The prevalence of abnormal gait in finishing pigs, maiden gilts, pregnant gilts and pregnant sows from 88 herds was 19.7, 11.8, 14.4 and 16.9%, respectively. In a multivariable analysis of 98 herds, there was an increased risk of abnormal gait in pregnant sows housed on slatted floors compared with pregnant sows housed on solid concrete floors with straw bedding or sows housed outdoors on soil. The lowest prevalence of abnormal gait in finishing pigs occurred in pigs housed outdoors (3.4 vs 19.7% in indoor-housed finishing pigs) however, the difference was not significant because only three farms in the study housed finishing pigs outdoors. In indoor-housed finishing pigs, there was an increased risk of abnormal gait in pigs housed on solid concrete floors with sparse bedding, partly-slatted floors or fully-slatted floors compared with those housed on solid concrete floors with deep bedding in all areas. However, there were no significant associations between floor type and abnormal gait in gilts. There was an increased risk of abnormal gait associated with increasing callus, bursitis and capped hock score on the limbs of finishing pigs. This might have occurred because limb lesions cause discomfort or because lame pigs spend more time lying and this increases the risk of limb lesions developing.

Animal welfare science is a relatively young scientific discipline. It is a formidable challenge for this scientific field to meet expectations from policy-makers, funding agencies, and society. They often ask scientists to provide clear-cut, unambiguous, and indisputable conclusions about specific and relevant welfare issues, for example, whether or not animal welfare is better in one type of housing/management system than in another one. People that expect scientists to provide such evidence often do not realise the complexity of this type of research question. Frequently, answers to these questions are urgently needed and solutions ought to be delivered within relatively short time-frames. Research grant applications in which it is promised that these expectations will be fulfilled quickly and cheaply, are often more likely to attract funding. Given the limited budget and time allocated to these research projects, the animal welfare problems are often investigated using a limited set of ‘standard’ welfare indicators known to be reliable for the species involved. There is rarely opportunity for developing and validating new measures that perhaps are better suited for addressing the research question concerned, nor for developing complex methodologies for integrating these different measurements into an overall assessment of animal welfare - let alone for checking that these measures and integration methods truly reflect the public's understanding. The latter, though, has been convincingly advocated to be essential for socially-constructed concepts such as ‘animal welfare’ (Fraser 2003).

Small mammals are routinely live-trapped and subsequently handled for a range of ecological and behavioural studies. Despite the techniques commonly employed being potentially stressful for the individual animals involved, it has hitherto been difficult to quantify the physiological impact. Here, we report on the first instance of using the Leukocyte Coping Capacity technique (LCC) in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) and wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) to investigate the physiological impact of routine trapping and handling techniques. Twenty microlitres of blood were obtained from 40 animals, of which 25 were handled following standard protocols and 15 were not. We found that even a short period of acute stress is sufficient to trigger an immune response which was measurable using the LCC technique. These results further validate the use of the LCC technique for measuring the physiological impact of standard trapping and handling treatments on wild mammals.

Animal well-being and enrichment continue to gain importance in the maintenance of primates living in captivity. Positive reinforcement training (PRT) and/or playing interaction have been shown to be effective in improving the well-being of several species of primates. This research study evaluated the effects of applying a combination of these two techniques (training/playing therapy) on a group of lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). The effects of this combination on the behaviour of captive primates have been given very little attention to date. The behaviour of a group of seven females was recorded in two different phases at Barcelona Zoo: before (periods 1 and 2) and after (periods 3 and 4) a series of changes were made to the composition of this social group. In each period, two phases were distinguished: i) baseline condition, after the subjects became used to the researcher, focal recordings were made of the group's regular behaviour and, ii) experimental condition, the training and playing sessions (‘gorilla play’) with two specific subjects began one hour before the group went to the outdoor facility. The frequency and duration of the behaviour observed in each of the recording conditions were compared. The results showed positive changes in the gorillas’ behaviour: stereotypies, interactions with the public, aggression between subjects and inactivity were all reduced, while affiliative behaviour and individual and social play-related behaviour increased. Moreover, the benefits of this therapy were observed in trained individuals and the rest of the gorillas in the group, which would seem to indicate that training/playing can be used to create a more relaxed atmosphere, reducing social tension and improving the well-being of all the subjects involved.

Regurgitation and reingestion (R/R) of foodstuffs is a common abnormal behaviour in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) and certain other non-human primates, but it is not part of their normal feeding mechanism. It is similar to a behavioural problem seen in humans, human rumination syndrome (HRS), which can occur in association with anxiety or a poor relationship with a caregiver. Patients with HRS often regurgitate stomach acid with the food matter which can result in clinical problems; until this study, it was not known if stomach acid is regurgitated by gorillas also. Thus, samples of regurgitated matter were collected opportunistically and non-invasively, and pH was measured using an electronic meter. Results were compared with the pH of samples of the original food eaten by the gorillas, and show that regurgitated food has significantly higher acidity than the originally-ingested meal. By comparison, samples of saliva were collected from gorillas opportunistically, in the absence of recent ingestion, and were found to be alkaline and, thus, saliva should not have contributed to the increased acidity of regurgitated matter. The results imply that stomach acid is being regurgitated, as in human patients with potentially-injurious rumination syndrome, and it is indicative of sub-optimal welfare. Causes and effects of R/R should be investigated further, to lead to potential treatment and prevention and to promote the welfare of captive gorillas.

The practice of farming bears for bile extraction is legal in China and involves an estimated 10,000 to 12,000 animals, primarily Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus). This study outlines the compromises to health and welfare suffered by bears on bile farms and is based on the results of visits to more than 50 bear farms; 15 years’ worth of interviews with bear farmers, Chinese officials, practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine and vendors dealing in bear parts; and from the observation and care of approximately 250 bears that have been rescued from bile farms. Bears that have been rescued from farms display evidence of severe and chronic physical and psychological suffering. Medical complications arising from the husbandry and the gall bladder fistulation significantly, and often fatally, compromise bears’ health.

The assessment and improvement of animal welfare are the tasks and joint responsibility of many stakeholders involved in the agro-food chain. This paper first looks at the supply side of the chain, and presents different stakeholder views on farm animal welfare, discussing the potential for market differentiation, communication and labelling related to farm animal welfare standards. From the demand side, the paper then examines the duality that exists between citizens’ attitudes and consumer behaviour in relation to animal welfare and livestock products, and identifies distinct segments of citizens and consumers. Although the importance that citizens claim to attach to animal welfare seems relatively strong, consumers’ interest in information about animal welfare is only moderate compared to other product attributes, and the market shares of products with a distinct animal welfare identity remain small. The paper concludes that while there seems to be substantial consensus between supply chain stakeholders, citizens and consumers about what is relevant for achieving an acceptable level of farm animal welfare, the differentiation and satisfaction potential of increased animal welfare per se as a stand-alone product attribute seems limited to particular niche market segments. It argues that improved farm animal welfare is more likely be realised and valued by consumers when it is integrated within a broader concept of quality, such as quality assurance or sustainability schemes.

This study examined the effects of social housing manipulations on bodyweight, corticosterone levels, and performance of T-maze alternation in male CD-1 mice. Males that adopted a dominant social rank were heavier than those that adopted a subordinate social rank. Dominant males also had lower corticosterone concentrations than the subordinates. However, there was little to suggest that these physiological indicators of social rank were moderated by housing condition. Indeed, statistical analysis confirmed that the difference in bodyweights was evident before males were socially housed. The mice showed high levels of spatial alternation on the T-maze from the start of testing so performance accuracy was high. Neither social rank nor housing condition had any clear categorical effect on T-maze performance. However, performance did fluctuate over successive blocks of testing and there was a negative association between accuracy on the T-maze and corticosterone levels (consistent with performance impairment because of elevated corticosterone). Therefore, under present conditions, individual differences in corticosterone were a better predictor of T-maze performance than social rank or housing condition. The results of the present study lend further support to the proposition that corticosterone levels measured non-invasively in urine may be used to predict diverse welfare outcomes for laboratory mice, from bodyweight to cognitive performance. Moreover, intrinsic physiological parameters rather than external influences, such as social housing, may have more influence on mouse behaviour.

There are increasing local and international pressures for farm animal welfare monitoring schemes. Housing of farm animals is a contentious issue for many, although the impact of the housing system may be overestimated by some. In contrast, the topic of stockmanship has received relatively little attention, even though research has shown that animal carers or stockpeople have a major impact on the welfare of their livestock. While welfare monitoring schemes are likely to improve animal welfare, the impact of such schemes will only be realised by recognising the limitations of stockpeople, monitoring ‘stockmanship’ and providing specific stockperson training to target key aspects of stockmanship. Appropriate strategies to recruit and train stock-people in the livestock industries are integral to safeguarding the welfare of livestock. Monitoring the key job-related characteristics of the stockperson, attitudes to animals and to working with these animals, empathy, work motivation and technical knowledge and skills, provides the opportunity to detect deficits in stockmanship and the necessity for further targeted training. Due to the strong relationships between stockperson attitudes and behaviours and animal fear responses, as well as the relationships between attitudes and other job-related characteristics, we believe attitudes, together with empathy, work motivation and technical knowledge and skills, should be the principal focus of measuring stockmanship in on-farm welfare monitoring schemes.

We previously reported that African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) female elephants in European zoos have shorter adult lifespans than protected conspecifics in range countries. This effect was the cause of greatest concern in Asian elephants, and risk factors within this species included being zoo-born, transferred between zoos, and possibly removed early from the mother. Here, we investigate these risk factors further; assess fecundity and sustainability in European zoos; and propose testable hypotheses as to the causes of these animals’ problems. Although imported wild-born Asian elephants live longer than zoo-born conspecifics, being imported when juvenile or adult appears no more protective than being imported in infancy, suggesting that the benefits of being wild- rather than zoo-born are conferred early in life. Zoo-born Asian neonates are significantly heavier than those born to working animals in range countries, with a possible tendency to be fatter. In zoos, African elephants have tended to be removed from their mothers at older ages than young Asians, and were also transferred between zoos significantly less often: factors that could possibly underlie this species’ lower calf losses and improving adult survivorship in Europe. Both species have low fecundity in European zoos compared to in situ populations, and are not self-sustaining, declining at approximately 10% per annum if reliant on captive-bred females under historically prevailing conditions. Data from other species suggest that stress and/or obesity are parsimonious explanations for the suite of problems seen. We recommend specific screens for testing these hypotheses, and for potentially identifying vulnerable individuals within the extant zoo populations.

A comprehensive synopsis of the welfare of captive, wild (ie non-domesticated) animals in travelling circuses is missing. We examined circus animal welfare and, specifically, behaviour, health, living and travelling conditions. We compared the conditions of non-domesticated animals in circuses with their counterparts kept in zoos. Data on circus animals were very scarce; where data were absent, we inferred likely welfare implications based on zoo data. Circus animals spent the majority of the day confined, about 1-9% of the day performing/training and the remaining time in exercise pens. Exercise pens were significantly smaller than minimum zoo standards for outdoor enclosures. Behavioural budgets were restricted, with circus animals spending a great amount of time performing stereotypies, especially when shackled or confined in beast wagons. A higher degree of stereotyping in circuses may be indicative of poorer welfare. Inadequate diet and housing conditions, and the effects of repeated performances, can lead to significant health problems. Circus animals travel frequently and the associated forced movement, human handling, noise, trailer movement and confinement are important stressors. Although there is no conclusive evidence as to whether animals habituate to travel, confinement in beast wagons for long timeperiods is a definite welfare concern. Circuses have a limited ability to make improvements, such as increased space, environmental enrichment and appropriate social housing. Consequently, we argue that non-domesticated animals, suitable for circus life, should exhibit low space requirements, simple social structures, low cognitive function, non-specialist ecological requirements and an ability to be transported without adverse welfare effects. None of the commonest species exhibited by circuses, such as elephants and large felids, currently meet these criteria. We conclude that the species of non-domesticated animals commonly kept in circuses appear the least suited to a circus life.

In commercial pig production, piglets are often mixed after weaning which can result in severe aggression and lead to body damage, disruption of feeding behaviour and reduced growth. This experiment investigated whether application of a synthetic maternal pheromone to groups of weaned pigs in commercial housing would affect the level of aggression and skin lesions sustained after mixing. Two treatments (Pheromone and Control) were used with 16 replicate pens of pigs (20 pigs per pen). Treatments were applied on the day of weaning (average 28 days of age) on a per room basis in alternate weeks. In Pheromone pens, after routine washing and disinfection, the walls and feeders were treated one hour prior to occupation with a synthetic pheromone at a rate of 1.0 ml pig−1. Control pens were as for Pheromone except no product was applied. During the 24-h period, post mixing, pigs in pheromone-treated pens spent significantly less time fighting than those in control pens. This was reflected in reduced injury scores 24 h after mixing, with pigs in pheromone-treated pens having 39% fewer skin lesions on the front of the body compared to those in control pens. Treatment had no effect on growth rate or feed efficiency, although the feed intake for days 7–28 was significantly lower and feed efficiency tended to be lower in pheromone-treated pens. In conclusion, application of a synthetic maternal pheromone can be considered one of the arsenal of strategies to reduce aggression and safeguard the welfare of groups of weaned pigs where mixing is unavoidable.

This paper briefly reviews the development of monitoring procedures used for the assessment of husbandry and welfare within Farm Quality Assurance (QA) schemes. Most current protocols are based on measures of the resources, records and management provisions necessary to promote good husbandry. However, it is now generally accepted that monitoring protocols should be largely or wholly made up of direct, animal-based measurements of animal welfare. Whether based on provisions or outcomes, many current schemes lack impact, partly because they do not necessarily lead to effective action on-farm and partly through lack of public awareness or trust in the claimed benefits of the scheme. This paper proposes the concept of the ‘Virtuous Bicycle’ as a delivery vehicle for improvements in farm animal welfare through simultaneous operation of two virtuous cycles, one on-farm, involving assessment, action and review, the other at the retailer level, involving assurance and promotion, based on proof of compliance.

During the commercial slaughter of farmed turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), a total of 67 fish were, on six occasions, removed from their rearing conditions at 14°C and put, as is standard commercial practice, into chilled seawater (-1.5 to -0.8°C) to monitor behavioural, muscular, osmoregulatory and respiratory responses during chilling time (90 min). Results show that a thermal insult alters the iso-osmotic balance, leading not only to an Na+ influx and an intracellular release of Ca2+ and K+, but also to a disturbance of respiratory function, leading to acidosis as a result of H+ and CO2 accumulation, increased pCO2 and reduced HCO3− in the blood. Once the internal temperature dropped below 1°C, the muscles contracted (cold shortening) and, although the fish were still alive, they reverted to a state of rigor, leading to a complete breakdown in their ability to move or ventilate and resembling an unconscious condition or death. Remarkably, the fish were able to prevent themselves undergoing hypoxia as pO2 remained within acceptable limits. No changes in muscle pH were observed and, thus, no noted effects on textural properties. We conclude that live chilling from 14°C to approximately -1°C is a highly questionable practice. It causes physical and physiological changes that are generally associated with stress and, in the case of observed forced muscle contractions, could lead to severe pain. Furthermore, we conclude that cold shortening associated with chilling can be easily mistaken for rigor mortis and, as such, should be subject to further attention in future research on quality.

Animal welfare concerns stem from recognition of the fact that animals can experience emotions such as pain or joy. Nevertheless, discussion of animal emotions is often considered anthropomorphic, and there is a clear need to use explanatory frameworks to understand animals' emotions. We borrowed appraisal theories developed in cognitive psychology to study sheep emotions. Emotions are viewed as the result of how an individual evaluates a triggering situation, following a sequence of checks, including the relevance of the situation (its suddenness, familiarity, predictability, and intrinsic pleasantness), its implications for the individual (including consistency with the individual's expectations), the potential for control, and both internal and external standards. We assumed that if the outcome of checks has an impact on the animal's emotional responses, then animals do not only show emotional responses but also feel emotions. We showed that sheep use similar checks to those used by humans to evaluate their environment, ie suddenness, familiarity, predictability, consistency with expectations, and control. Furthermore, this evaluation affects their emotional responses (behavioural responses, such as startle, ear postures, and cardiac activity). It is concluded that sheep are able to experience emotions such as fear, anger, rage, despair, boredom, disgust and happiness because they use the same checks involved in such emotions as humans. For instance, despair is triggered by situations which are evaluated as sudden, unfamiliar, unpredictable, discrepant from expectations, and uncontrollable, whereas boredom results from an overly predictable environment, and all these checks have been found to affect emotional responses in sheep. These results have implications for animal welfare: although a completely invariable and totally predictable environment should be avoided to prevent boredom, sudden events should probably be minimised, the animals should be offered the possibility to control their environment, and care should be taken to ensure a degree of predictability concerning the various events.

Neonate rats have played an important and unique role within the memory literature. Specifically, they are relatively naïve to experience, can be trained in an ethologically-valid way, using a single trial, which is not aversive and can demonstrate retention for at least 24 h, post-training. As such, they have provided salient insights into the biological mechanisms underlying the memory trace and brain development. The task of choice for rat pups is one using odour preference requiring the removal of each pup from the nest/dam for a ten-minute training trial. For such young animals this may reasonably lead to undue stress and the potential of subsequent rejection by the dam. Little research has considered whether the training duration could be substantially shortened to provide significant animal welfare benefits while maintaining, if not improving, task efficacy. This issue was addressed in the current paper using six-day old Wistar rats (n = 175) exposed to a single-trial, odour-preference task using either a standard ten-minute training trial or a shorter two-minute training trial. Exposing rat pups to the training odour for two minutes did not compromise the level of discrimination observed at test 24 h later. This finding suggests that significantly shorter training trials can be used without compromising retention levels at test. This not only has obvious welfare benefits, but may reasonably be considered to reduce pups’ stress levels which are known to alter both the strength and timing of the memory trace.

In-transit losses (ITL) in fattening pigs refers to mortality occurring after having left the farm but prior to stunning at the abattoir. The purpose of this observational study was to identify the associations between environmental and truck temperatures, distances travelled, feed withdrawal, farm, transport company and abattoir and in-transit losses of fattening pigs marketed in Ontario, Canada from 2001 to 2004. A prospective study of 104 trips was conducted to determine temperatures inside the truck and identify the factors associated with this. In 2001, ITL was 0.017%, with 75% of producers losing < 5 pigs annually. In-transit losses increased between distances travelled of 590 to 720 km and decreased at distances greater than 980 km. The Pig Comfort Index, a combination of temperature and humidity, was used to identify thresholds of environmental conditions above which in-transit losses increased. The farm at which the pig was raised explained more variation of ITL (25%) than transport company (8%) or abattoir (16%). The within-farm ITL in 2003 had a positive association with those in 2001 and 2002. Withdrawing food prior to transport may decrease ITL on some farms. The temperature in truck compartments holding pigs increased by 0.99°C as the environmental temperature increased by 1°C and by 0.1°C as the relative humidity increased by 1%. Truck temperature decreased 0.06°C for each increase in driving speed of 10 km h−1 and increased by 7°C with an increase in pig density from one to 2.6 pigs per m2.

This study investigated the influence of being reared with or without access to peat as well as the effects of losing or gaining substrate access on the dustbathing behaviour of young, domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus). There were four treatments, based on the period of time chicks had access to peat during rearing: (i) always (LL), (ii) never (NN), (iii) from 0 to 6 weeks of age (LN) and (iv) from 6 weeks of age onwards (NL). Observations on the number and length of dustbaths performed were made for six days with birds aged six weeks and 50% of the birds either lost or gained access to litter. The birds then remained in the same treatment conditions until 16 weeks of age, at which point the same behavioural observations were repeated. NL birds (which had just gained access to peat) were found to be quicker than LN birds (which had just lost access to peat) to perform a dustbath during the first observation period. A significant difference was seen in the variation of the duration of the dustbathing bouts; both LL and NL birds varied less in the lengths of their bouts than NN and LN birds over both observation periods. Hence, early rearing environment had less effect on birds’ dustbathing behaviour than current access or lack of access to litter. The irregular dustbathing pattern exhibited by birds that dustbathe without litter could be a sign of frustration; an indication that dustbathing without litter — unlike dustbathing in litter — does not provide the required feedback.

Analysis of post mortem lesions is a common means for assessing poultry welfare during rearing and pre-slaughter handling. The aim of this study was to determine the influence of: age, sex, rearing system, total number of birds on-farm, period between catch and slaughter and distance from poultry house to processing plant on the incidence of: foot-pad dermatitis (FPD), breast blisters (BB), bruises and scratches. Rearing systems consisted of extensive indoor (EI) and traditional free-range (TFR). Accordingly, birds were reared under non-intensive conditions (< 12 broilers m−2). In TFR, the maximum flock size was 4,800, birds had continuous daytime access to open-air runs from at least the age of six weeks, and the minimum slaughter age was 81 days; whereas EI rearing was exclusively indoor and birds were slaughtered at 56 days or later. Observations occurred daily after plucking and each bird was examined for: haematomas, scratches, FPD and BB. Logistic regressions were applied to study the relationship between variables. Farms holding between 10,000-20,000 birds were the most affected with FPD, BB and scratches. The oldest birds (91-100 days) showed the greatest incidence of FPD and scratches. TFR birds exhibited the highest prevalence of bruises and lowest of FPD. BB were most common among birds travelling between 31-60 km from poultry farm to processing plant while scratches were more frequent at greater distances (91-120 km). Male broilers were more predisposed to BB than females. Scratching increased relative to the number of hours that birds awaited slaughter. Despite the fact that only a relatively small number of broiler flocks were examined, these findings may have implications for the draft of future European legislation regarding poultry welfare.