This chapter focuses in more detail on the role of incentives in experimental sociology. Providing the right incentives in an experiment is an important precondition for drawing valid inferences. This is a predominant view in experimental economics based on the induced-value theory assuming that monetary incentives override any other human motivation in laboratory economic experiments. A slightly less demanding assumption is that subjects can be incentivized by monetary payoffs but are also motivated by other-regarding preferences or reciprocity. On the other hand, psychologists focus on motivations that subjects bring into the laboratory as a predisposition to behavior and on the framing of the situation. Sociological research takes elements from both perspectives and emphasizes institutional, cultural, and social determinants of human behavior. An important theoretical framework for experimental work is sociological work on framing. According to sociological framing theories, subjects interpret the situation in terms of the given cues and select an action that is appropriate to the situation. The chapter discusses the implications of these three views on the design of experiments in sociology.

This chapter advocates an ethic of “symmetric interpretation” as a solution to the challenges outlined in Chapter 1. To prevent undue politicization of constitutional law, judges should favor, when possible, constitutional understandings that are “symmetric” in the sense of conferring valuable protections across both sides of the nation’s major political and ideological divides. By the same token, they should disfavor understandings that frame constitutional law as a matter of zero-sum competition between rival partisan visions. Favoring symmetric understandings in this sense will not always be possible. When it is possible, however, favoring symmetry may provide a point of common orientation for judges with differing policy preferences and interpretive outlooks. Reflecting this approach's inherent appeal, an inchoate preference for symmetry is already evident in judges’ opinions, oral argument questions, and reasoning.

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are a group of severe developmental and neuropsychiatric disorders usually apparent by the age of three. Autism, referred to as autism spectrum disorder in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by persistent deficits in social interaction and social communication, as well as a range of restricted, repetitive behaviours (World Health Organization 2018). The onset of autism is in the developmental period (0–18 years of age), though for some autistic persons the symptoms may manifest later in life, at a time of increased social demands (World Health Organization 2018). In addition to the aforementioned core autistic features, many autistic people have associated symptoms, including hypo- or hypersensitivities to sensory stimuli, difficulties describing their emotional state (alexithymia), and problems with gross motor co-ordination The chapter will discuss the interface between autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability and the potential management of the disorder. It will also cover the gender variations in presentation.

The conclusion situates this volume in its wider historical context and assesses the gains derived from the methodology it employs. Unlike its situation after 1948, during the last decades of Ottoman rule Gaza was in no way an anomaly but rather an integral part of the Ottoman Empire. This contrast helps better understand depictions of Gaza in current day discourse: it was never integrated into any modern nation-state, and more closely resembles a relic of the pre-nation-state period. Countering the widespread fallacy that Gaza does not fit into any meaningful historical narrative, this work reimagines Gaza without the cumulative effects of the successive catastrophic events since WWI and the strictures of the Gaza Strip, but rather in terms of its multiple connections in time and space as they evolved over the centuries. Its reliance on an empirical, source-driven GIS-supported methodology constitutes a major advance that highlights the centrality of political factionalism for the city and its region and sheds light on the lifeworlds of Gaza’s commoner population. Overall, this work provides a rich terrain for formulating new hypotheses on social strategies in Gaza’s society and examining the strategic constructedness of claims found in contemporary texts.

The award-winning actor, director, and scenographer Éric Ruf discusses his role since 2014 as administrateur general (artistic director) of the Comédie-Française. In discussion with Clare Siviter, Ruf offers readers a glimpse into the world’s oldest continually performing troupe. He describes the legacy and symbolic weight for performers today of the building and its history, and how they negotiate innovations such as price reform and live streaming, when steeped in such tradition.

This chapter explains why the State has greater power to regulate and police unhoused persons compared to people with access to housing. It shows how and why the State has more power to regulate need-alleviating conduct that occurs on public property than on private property. It demonstrates how laws that govern public property operate like legal rules that impose affirmative duties to act on unhoused persons. Yet others control whether unhoused persons can fulfil this affirmative duty, and unhoused persons must make non-egalitarian trade-offs to fulful their positive obligations.

The chapter begins with an effort to explain the book’s starting-point in the Enlightenment. Moving from historiography to the events of the time, it begins by telling the tale of the essay competition on the question “What is Enlightenment?,” in which Moses Mendelssohn came first, followed by Immanuel Kant. Mentioning that some 200 years later, the French post-modernist historian-philosopher Michel Foucault wrote yet another essay under the same title, in which he explicitly combined German and Jewish history, the chapter moves once again from historiography to history, concentrating on the biography of Moses Mendelssohn, especially on his repeated confrontation with the religious intolerance of some of his enlightened colleagues and then, stressing the ambivalence of the situation, typical of the German Enlightenment as a whole, the chapter ends with a comment on Lessing’s Nathan der Weise.

This chapter focuses on teacher professionalism. In response to vigorous debates initiated in the disciplines of education and sociology, this issue has been discussed with varying degrees of intensity in the field of English language teaching over the past three decades. The concept of teacher professionalism, however, has an intricate nature. Its complexity partially results from the fact that it cannot be fully explained without linking it to teachers’ professional knowledge, practice, and engagement, teachers’ professional identity, and their ethical conduct, all of which are sophisticated constructs in their own right. The complexity of teacher professionalism is also attributed to its evolution within active and learning communities of English language teachers. With this in mind, this chapter begins with a presentation of important definitions of teacher professionalism. This is supported by a brief examination of the professional standards obligatory for the teaching occupation. These are discussed in relation to three dimensions: professional knowledge, professional practice, and professional engagement. The chapter then explicates the construct of teacher professional identity. This is followed by a concise deliberation on the relationship between professionalism and ethics. The chapter concludes with constructive suggestions for sustaining teacher professionalism.

This chapter reviews evidence that the orthographic forms (spellings) of L2 sounds and words affect L2 phonological representation and processing. Orthographic effects are found in speech perception, speech production, phonological awareness, and the learning of words and sounds. Orthographic forms facilitate L2 speakers/listeners – for instance in lexical learning – but also have negative effects, resulting in sound additions, deletions, and substitutions. This happens because L2 speakers’ L2 orthographic knowledge differs from the actual working of the L2 writing system. Orthographic effects are established after little exposure to orthographic forms, are persistent, can be reinforced by factors other than orthography, including spoken input, and are modulated by individual-level and sound/word-level variables. Future research should address gaps in current knowledge, for instance investigating the effects of teaching interventions, and aim at producing a coherent framework.

This chapter focuses on several short biographies excerpted from Persian Shīʿī biographical dictionary Rayḥānat al-Adab fī Tarājim al-Maʿrūfīn bi-l-Kunyā wa-l-Laqab (‘The Sweet Basil of Learning, concerning the biographies - tarājim - of the well-known, ordered by teknonym and nickname’) by the modern author Mīrzā Muḥammad Mudarris Khayābānī (d. 1373/1954). The work as a whole contains 4,624 biographies, arranged, alphabetically, but also by the various naming methods in Arabic. The selection presented in this chapter provides the reader with examples of unremarkable biographical entries, in the sense that the scholars are not controversial or problematic for the tradition in the view of the biographer.

Artificial intelligence (AI) as an object and term remains enmeshed in our imaginaries, narratives, institutions and aspirations. AI has that in common with the other object of discussion in this Cambridge Companion: religion. But beyond such similarities in form and reception, we can also speak to how entangled these two objects have been, and are yet still becoming, with each other. This introductory chapter explores the difficulty of definitions and the intricacies of the histories of these two domains and their entanglements. It initially explores this relationship through the religious narratives and tropes that have had a role to play in the formation of the field of AI, in its discursive modes. It examines the history of AI and religion through the language and perspectives of some of the AI technologists and philosophers who have employed the term ‘religion’ in their discussions of the technology itself. Further, this chapter helps to set the scene for the larger conversation on religion and AI of this volume by demonstrating some of the tensions and lacunae that the following chapters address in greater detail.

Explains the relationship between industrial policy and international trade, specifically focusing on the theory of comparative advantage and the mechanics of trade deficits and currency misvaluation.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a heterogeneous condition presenting with hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention that is pervasive. ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder with onset during childhood. Functional impairment can be manifested in academic, occupational, or social domains (American Psychiatric Association 2013; ICD-11 (11th revision) 2019). The degree of inattention and/or hyperactivity and impulsivity is beyond what is expected for the person’s age or level of intellectual abilities and can’t be explained by another mental disorder, The chapter presents an overview of the condition, including gender or other forms of variations in presentation, the many treatments with medication available, and its relevance.