Temporal energy intake (EI) and physical activity (PA) patterns may be associated with obesity. We aimed to derive and characterise temporal EI and PA patterns and assess their cross-sectional association with weight status in participants aged 6–14 years from the Portuguese National Food, Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey 2015-2016. We extracted times and EI of all eating occasions from two 1-day food diaries/24-hour recalls, while types and times of PA from 4-day PA diaries. We derived EI patterns (n=714) and PA patterns (n=595), using, respectively, a hierarchical and K-means cluster analysis, considering the average proportion of total daily EI (%TEI) and PA intensity (%TPA), within each 2-hour interval across the 24-hour day. We assessed the association between patterns and Overweight or obesity (Body Mass Index z-score ≥+1 Standard Deviation) using adjusted logistic regressions [Odds ratio (95% Confidence Interval)]. Three EI patterns were identified and labelled based on the 2-h interval of %TEI peaks: 1–“Early afternoon & Early evening”; 2–“Early afternoon & Late evening”, and 3–"Late morning, Early and Mid-afternoon & Late evening”. EI Pattern 3 vs. 1 was negatively associated with overweight or obesity [0.49 (0.26,0.92)]. PA pattern 1–“Late Morning, Mid-afternoon & Early evening” vs. Pattern 2–“Late afternoon”, was not associated with weight status [0.95 (0.65,1.38)]. A daily EI pattern characterised by more and even %TEI peaks at earlier daytime periods, instead of less, may be negatively associated with overweight or obesity amongst Portuguese 6-to-14-year-olds, whereas the identified PA patterns might have no relationship.

The long-term impact of eating duration on the risk of all-cause mortality remains unclear, with limited exploration of how different levels of energy intake and physical activity might influence this impact. To investigate, 24 484 American adults from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey spanning 1999–2018 were included. Eating duration was assessed via 24-h dietary recall, and all-cause mortality data were sourced from the National Death Index. The relationship between eating duration and all-cause mortality was analysed using Cox proportional hazards regression models, restricted cubic splines and stratification analysis with complex weighted designs. The median (IQR) of eating duration for participants was 12·5 (11·0, 14·0) h. In this study, 2896 death events were observed, and the median follow-up time (IQR) was 125 (77, 177) months. After multivariable adjustment, compared with Q1, Q2, Q3 and Q4 had reduced risks of all-cause mortality by 17, 15 and 13 %, respectively. Furthermore, each additional hour of eating duration was correlated with a 2 % decrease in the risk of all-cause mortality. Additionally, a non-linear dose–response relationship was observed between eating duration and the risk of all-cause mortality, showing a U-shaped relationship from 8·9 h to 15·3 h (P for non-linearity < 0·05). Interestingly, the non-linear dose–response relationship was observed exclusively among individuals with high energy intake or a lightly active physical activity level. These findings suggest potential health benefits from adjusting eating duration, though further prospective studies are needed for validation.

Plant-derived proteins are often deficient in essential amino acids and have lower rates of digestibility than animal-derived proteins. Blending different plant-derived proteins could compensate for these deficiencies and may augment postprandial aminoacidemia over single-source plant proteins. This study assessed plasma amino acids and appetite hormones, appetite sensations and ad libitum energy intake following ingestion of a pea-rice protein blend (BLEND), compared with pea-only (PEA) and whey (WHEY) protein. In a randomised, double-blind, crossover design, ten healthy adults (M n 4, F n 6; mean (sd) age 22 (sd 3) years; BMI 24 (sd 3) kg·m2) ingested 0·3 g·kg·body mass–1 of BLEND, PEA or WHEY. Arterialised venous blood samples and appetite ratings were obtained in the fasted state and over 240 min postprandially. Energy intake was measured via an ad libitum buffet-style test meal. Mean plasma essential amino acid incremental AUC was higher in WHEY, compared with PEA (P < 0·01; mean diff (95 % CI): 44 218 (15 806, 72 631) μmol·240 min·l–1) and BLEND (P < 0·01; 14 358 (16 031, 101 121) μmol·240 min·l–1), with no differences between PEA and BLEND (P = 0·67). Plasma ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide-1, appetite ratings and ad libitum energy intake responses did not differ between treatments (P > 0·05 for all). Ingestion of a pea-rice protein blend did not augment postprandial aminoacidemia above pea protein, perhaps attributable to marginal differences in essential amino acid composition. No between-treatment differences in appetite or energy intake responses were apparent, suggesting that the influence of protein ingestion on perceived appetite ratings and orexigenic hormonal responses may not be solely determined by postprandial plasma aminoacidemia.

Dietary surveys are critical in evaluating dietary trends prevailing across the entire population. The aim of this study is to present the results of the latest research into the intakes of energy, macronutrients, and micronutrients amongst the adult population in Lithuania from 2019 through 2020. A cross-sectional study was conducted and dietary data was collected using a 24-h dietary recall method from a total of 2555 Lithuanian adults. Medians, 25th and 75th percentiles were calculated. The diet of Lithuanian adults was found insufficient as the energy intake from fats exceeded the recommended norms, while the energy intake from carbohydrates was below the lower range. The intakes of dietary fibre and most vitamins and minerals were insufficient. Men, compared to women, had a statistically higher total energy intake and energy intake from fats, and a higher intake of dietary fibre. Younger adults, compared to older ones, had statistically lower intakes of energy from fats, including saturated fats, and lower intakes of sodium chloride. Respondents with primary education, compared to those who had attained a higher degree of education, had a statistically lower intake of total energy and dietary fibre. Study showed that intakes of majority of nutrients in the diet of the adult Lithuanian population are not in compliance with the recommended daily intakes. Continuous nationally representative studies into food consumption and nutrient intake of the adult Lithuanian population must be carried out to assess the changes in the population’s diet and the effectiveness of policies aimed at promoting healthy diets.

The primary aim of this study was to examine the association between snack nutritional quality, overall diet quality and adiposity among Australian adolescents. The secondary aim was to assess the distribution of discretionary foods (i.e. energy-dense and nutrient-poor foods and beverages) and intakes from the five food groups at different levels of snack nutritional quality. Dietary data collected from nationally representative adolescents (12–18 years old) during a 24-h dietary recall in the National Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were analysed (n 784). Snacks were defined based on participant-identified eating occasions. Snack nutritional quality was assessed using the Nutrient Profiling Scoring Criterion (NPSC), whereas diet quality was evaluated using the Dietary Guideline Index for Children and Adolescents. Adiposity was assessed through BMI Z-score waist circumference and waist:height ratio (WHtR). Higher nutritional quality of snacks, as assessed by the NPSC, has been associated with higher diet quality among both boys and girls (P < 0·001). However, there is no association between snacks nutritional quality with BMI Z-score, waist circumference and WHtR. Among both boys and girls, the consumption of fruits, vegetables and legumes/beans at snacks increased with improvement in snack nutritional quality. Conversely, the consumption of discretionary foods at snack decreased with improvement in snack nutritional quality. In conclusion, improved snack quality was associated with better diet quality in adolescents. However, there was no association between snack nutritional quality and adiposity. Future, snack nutrition quality indices should consider optimum snack characteristics related with adiposity and diet quality.

National surveys in India, through measures of anthropometry and biomarkers, have identified a triple burden of malnutrition (undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies and overnutrition) in adolescents(1). However, there is a dearth of high-quality data on individual dietary behaviour of this population(2) and the importance of sub-national dietary surveys in filling this gap has been identified(3). The objective of this study was to assess the intake of energy (E) and macronutrients and the contribution of macronutrients to E in a random sample of 11–13-year-old schoolchildren in Delhi, India. Method: The study was approved by The University of Adelaide Human Research Ethics Committee and the Independent Ethics Committee of the Centre for Chronic Disease Control, New Delhi. The target sample size of 360 was based on a ± 5% margin of error in estimated sugars intakes. Using the list of private schools in Delhi (n = 1374), a statistician external to the research team generated a random sample of 150 schools stratified by districts (n = 11). Using this list, schools were invited to participate, and recruitment continued until 10 schools consented. Teachers shared study information with parents; interested parents filled in the online consent form. Assent was obtained from schoolchildren. Participants recorded all food and drink consumed over three consecutive days, including one weekend day, in a food diary. Information recorded was entered into an online dietary assessment tool, Intake24 Southeast Asia version, during an interview with each participant. The Intake24 database of over 2400 food photographs of more than 100 foods was used to ascertain portion size. The Intake24 database converts food and drink reported into the intake of nutrients through integrated food compositional tables. Of 514 pupils providing consent, 393 participants (76.4%) (169 girls, 224 boys) completed the study. The median daily E intake was 10.8 (IQR 9.0 −12.5) MJ for girls, and 12.3 (IQR 10.3- 15.2) MJ for boys. For the 97 girls and 144 boys providing body weight data, Physical Activity Level ratios were 2.0 and 2.1 respectively. The median daily intakes for girls were: protein 64.6 (IQR 54.8-79.3) g; carbohydrate 336.5 (IQR 285.3- 393.6) g; and saturated fat 45.6 (IQR 34.8-58.3) g. The respective values in boys were: protein 74.4 (IQR 61.4; 89.4) g; carbohydrate 379.6 (IQR 317.8; 461.8) g; and saturated fat 54.6 (IQR 41.9-69.5) g. There were no significant between-gender differences in percent E from protein (10.2 (IQR 9.2; 11.4)), or carbohydrate (52.4 (IQR 48.7; 56.7)). Girls obtained less E from saturated fat (16.1 (IQR 11.0-18.2) compared with boys 16.3 (IQR 14.2 - 19.1) (P<0.05). In conclusion, in this sample of adolescents from private schools in Delhi, E intake was above FAO recommended levels and median total fat intake exceeded the recommended threshold of 35%(4).

Effects of acute thermal exposures on appetite appear hypothetical in reason of very heterogeneous methodologies. The aim of this study was therefore to clearly define the effects of passive 24-h cold (16°C) and heat (32°C) exposures on appetitive responses compared with a thermoneutral condition (24°C). Twenty-three healthy, young and active male participants realised three sessions (from 13.00) in a laboratory conceived like an apartment dressed with the same outfit (Clo = 1). Three meals composed of three or four cold or warm dishes were served ad libitum to assess energy intake (EI). Leeds Food Preference Questionnaires were used before each meal to assess food reward. Subjective appetite was regularly assessed, and levels of appetitive hormones (acylated ghrelin, glucagon-like peptite-1, leptin and peptide YY) were assessed before and after the last meal (lunch). Contrary to the literature, total EI was not modified by cold or heat exposure (P = 0·120). Accordingly, hunger scores (P = 0·554) were not altered. Levels of acylated ghrelin and leptin were marginally higher during the 16 (P = 0·032) and 32°C (P < 0·023) sessions, respectively. Interestingly, implicit wanting for cold and low-fat foods at 32°C and for warm and high-fat foods at 16°C were increased during the whole exposure (P < 0·024). Moreover, cold entrées were more consumed at 32°C (P < 0·062) and warm main dishes more consumed at 16°C (P < 0·025). Thus, passive cold and hot exposures had limited effects on appetite, and it seems that offering some choice based on food temperature may help individuals to express their specific food preferences and maintain EI.

This study assessed postprandial plasma aminoacidemia, glycemia, insulinemia and appetite responses to ingestion of a novel salmon-derived protein peptide (Salmon PP) compared with milk protein isolate (Milk PI). In a randomised, participant-blind crossover design, eleven healthy adults (M = 5, F = 6; mean ± sd age: 22 ± 3 years; BMI: 24 ± 3 kg/m2) ingested 0·3 g/kg/body mass of Salmon PP or Milk PI. Arterialised blood samples were collected whilst fasted and over a 240-min postprandial period. Appetite sensations were measured via visual analogue scales. An ad libitum buffet-style test meal was administered after each trial. The incremental AUC (iAUC) plasma essential amino acid (EAA) response was similar between Salmon PP and Milk PI. The iAUC plasma leucine response was significantly greater following Milk PI ingestion (P < 0·001), whereas temporal and iAUC plasma total amino acid (P = 0·001), non-essential amino acid (P = 0·002), glycine (P = 0·0025) and hydroxyproline (P < 0·001) responses were greater following Salmon PP ingestion. Plasma insulin increased similarly above post-absorptive values following Salmon PP and Milk PI ingestion, whilst plasma glucose was largely unaltered. Indices of appetite were similarly altered following Salmon PP and Milk PI ingestion, and total energy and macronutrient intake during the ad libitum meal was similar between Salmon PP and Milk PI. The postprandial plasma EAA, glycine, proline and hydroxyproline response to Salmon PP ingestion suggest this novel protein source could support muscle and possibly connective tissue adaptive remodelling, which warrants further investigation, particularly as the plasma leucine response to Salmon PP ingestion was inferior to Milk PI.

The aim of this study was to assess whether adding Ca2+ to aggregate or native forms of β-lactoglobulin alters gut hormone secretion, gastric emptying rates and energy intake in healthy men and women. Fifteen healthy adults (mean ± sd: 9M/6F, age: 24 ± 5 years) completed four trials in a randomised, double-blind, crossover design. Participants consumed test drinks consisting of 30 g of β-lactoglobulin in a native form with (NATIVE + MINERALS) and without (NATIVE) a Ca2+-rich mineral supplement and in an aggregated form both with (AGGREG + MINERALS) and without the mineral supplement (AGGREG). Arterialised blood was sampled for 120 min postprandially to determine gut hormone concentrations. Gastric emptying was determined using 13C-acetate and 13C-octanoate, and energy intake was assessed with an ad libitum meal at 120 min. A protein × mineral interaction effect was observed for total glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1TOTAL) incremental AUC (iAUC; P < 0·01), whereby MINERALS + AGGREG increased GLP-1TOTAL iAUC to a greater extent than AGGREG (1882 ± 603 v. 1550 ± 456 pmol·l−1·120 min, P < 0·01), but MINERALS + NATIVE did not meaningfully alter the GLP-1 iAUC compared with NATIVE (1669 ± 547 v. 1844 ± 550 pmol·l−1·120 min, P = 0·09). A protein × minerals interaction effect was also observed for gastric emptying half-life (P < 0·01) whereby MINERALS + NATIVE increased gastric emptying half-life compared with NATIVE (83 ± 14 v. 71 ± 8 min, P < 0·01), whereas no meaningful differences were observed between MINERALS + AGGREG v. AGGREG (P = 0·70). These did not result in any meaningful changes in energy intake (protein × minerals interaction, P = 0·06). These data suggest that the potential for Ca2+ to stimulate GLP-1 secretion at moderate protein doses may depend on protein form. This study was registered at clinicaltrials.gov (NCT04659902).

The prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults has increased worldwide. A strong environmental factor contributing to the obesity epidemic is food portion size (PS). This review evaluates the current evidence linking food PS to obesity, examines the effects of PS on energy intake (EI), and discusses the drivers of food PS selection. The leading causes of the rise in PS include globalisation, intensive farming methods, the impact of World War II, due to shortage of staple foods, and the notion of ‘waste not, want not’. Large PS of energy-dense foods may stimulate overconsumption, leading to high EI levels. However, the studies have not shown a cause-and-effect relationship, due to confounding factors. Important mechanisms explaining the attractiveness of larger PS leading to higher EI levels are value for money, portion distortion, labels on food packaging, and tableware. Consumers depend on external rather than internal PS cues to guide consumption, irrespective of satiety levels. Further research is recommended on food consumption patterns to inform policymakers and provide information and insights about changes in diet.

The review aims to explore the potential benefit and risk of high-protein diets (HPD) regarding the comorbidity of sarcopoenia and CVD in the setting of cardiac rehabilitation (CR). CR is standard care for individuals who have experienced a cardiac event, but the current practice of predominantly aerobic exercise, a lower-fat diet and weight loss poorly addresses the issue of sarcopoenia. HPD, especially when combined with resistance exercise (RE), may be valuable adjuncts to current CR practice and benefit both muscle and cardiovascular health. Meta-analyses and randomised controlled trials of HPD and CVD risk show beneficial but variable effects regarding weight loss, the lipid profile, insulin resistance and lean body mass in those living with or high risk of CVD. Meta-analyses of prospective cohort studies on hard CVD endpoints favour lower- and plant-protein diets over higher animal protein, but the evidence is inconsistent. HPD augment the strength and muscle gaining benefits of RE in older populations, but there are no published data in those living with CVD providing promising opportunities for CR research. HPD raise concern regarding renal and bone health, the microbiome, branched chain amino acids and environmental sustainability and findings suggest that plant-based HPD may confer ecological and overall health advantages compared to animal-based HPD. However, incorporating RE with HPD might alleviate certain health risks. In conclusion, a largely plant-based HPD is deemed favourable for CR when combined with RE, but further research regarding efficacy and safety in CR populations is needed.

Recent evidence suggests better appetite control in states of high-energy flux (HEF) in adults and lean children. Nevertheless, it is unknown whether this extends to youth with obesity. This study compares the effects of low, moderate or HEF on short-term appetitive control in adolescents with obesity. Sixteen adolescents with obesity (12–16 years, Tanner stages 3–5, 11 females) randomly completed three conditions: (i) low-energy flux (LEF); (ii) moderate energy flux (MEF; + 250 kcal) and (iii) HEF (HEF; + 500 kcal). Energy flux was achieved in MEF and HEF through elevated energy intake (EI) and concomitant increase in energy expenditure using cycling exercise (65 % VO2peak). Ad libitum EI, macronutrient intake and relative EI were assessed at dinner, subjective appetite sensations taken at regular intervals and food reward measured before dinner. Ad libitum EI at dinner was greater in LEF compared with HEF (P = 0·008), and relative EI (REI) was higher in LEF compared with MEF (P = 0·003) and HEF (P < 0·001). The absolute consumption of carbohydrates was lower in LEF compared with MEF (P = 0·047) and HEF (P < 0·001). Total AUC for hunger and desire to eat was lower in HEF compared with LEF (P < 0·001) and MEF (P = 0·038). Total AUC for prospective food consumption was lower on HEF compared with LEF (P = 0·004). Food choice sweet bias was higher in HEF (P = 0·005) compared with LEF. To conclude, increasing energy flux may improve short-term appetite control in adolescents with obesity.

Food-based dietary guidelines have been the basis of public health recommendations for over half a century, but more recently, there has been a trend to classify the health properties of food not by its nutrient composition, but by the degree to which it has been processed. This concept has been supported by many association studies, narrative reviews and the findings from one randomised controlled feeding trial, which demonstrated the sustained effect of ultra-processed diets on increasing both energy intake and body weight. This has led to widespread speculation as to specific features of ultra-processed foods that promote increased energy intakes. Rising interest in the ultra-processed topic has led to proposals to include guidance and restrictions on the consumption of processed foods in national dietary guidelines, with some countries encouraging consumers to avoid highly processed foods completely, and only choose minimally processed foods. However, there remains a lack of consensus on the role of processed foods in human health when faced with the challenges of securing the food supply for a growing global population, that is, healthy, affordable and sustainable. There has also been criticism of the subjective nature of definitions used to differentiate foods by their degree of processing, and there is currently a lack of empirical data to support a clear mechanism by which highly processed foods promote greater energy intakes. Recommendations to avoid all highly processed foods are potentially harmful if they remove affordable sources of nutrients and will be impractical for most when an estimated two-thirds of current energy purchased are from processed or ultra-processed foods. The current review highlights some considerations when interpreting the dietary association studies that link processed food intake to health and offers a critique on some of the mechanisms proposed to explain the link between ultra-processed food and poor health. Recent research suggests a combination of higher energy density and faster meal eating rates are likely to influence meal size and energy intakes from processed foods and offers new perspectives on how to manage this in the future. In going beyond the ultra-processed debate, the aim is to summarise some important considerations when interpreting existing data and identify the important gaps for future research on the role of processed food in health.

Research into how alignment to UK dietary guidelines during childhood affects cardiometabolic health is limited. The association between adherence to UK dietary guidelines during childhood and overall cardiometabolic risk (CMR) in adolescence/early adulthood was explored using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). ALSPAC children with diet diaries completed at 7, 10 and 13 years of age, and data on CMR markers at 17 years (n 1940) and 24 years (n 1957) were included. A children’s Eatwell Guide (C-EWG) score was created by comparing dietary intakes at each age to UK dietary guidelines for nine foods/nutrients. Cardiometabolic health at 17 and 24 years was assessed using a composite CMR score. Multivariable linear regression models examined associations between C-EWG scores at 7, 10 and 13 years and the CMR score at 17 and 24 years, adjusting for confounders. C-EWG scores were generally low. However, a higher score (adherence to more dietary guidelines) at 7 years old was associated with a lower CMR score at 17 and 24 years: β −0·13 (95 % CI −0·25, –0·01) and β −0·25 (95 % CI −0·38, –0·13) for a 1-point increase in C-EWG score, respectively. A higher C-EWG score at 10 years was also associated with a lower CMR z-score at 24 years. No clear associations were evident at other ages. Greater adherence to UK dietary guidelines during mid-childhood was associated with a better overall cardiometabolic profile, suggesting that encouraging children to eat in this way has long-term benefits to health.

The European Food Safety Authority has suggested that EU countries implement the 2 × 24 h diet recall (2 × 24 h DR) method and physical activity (PA) measurements for national dietary surveys. Since 2000, Denmark has used 7 d food diaries (7 d FD) with PA questionnaires and measurements. The accuracy of the reported energy intakes (EI) from the two diet methods, pedometer-determined step counts and self-reported time spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) were compared with total energy expenditure measured by the doubly labelled water (TEEDLW) technique and with PA energy expenditure (PAEE), respectively. The study involved fifty-two male and sixty-eight female volunteers aged 18–60 years who were randomly assigned to start with either the 24 h DR or the web-based 7 d FD, and wore a pedometer for the first 7 d and filled in a step diary. The mean TEEDLW (11·5 MJ/d) was greater than the mean reported EI for the 7 d FD (9·5 MJ/d (P < 0·01)) but the same as the 2 × 24 h DR (11·5 MJ/d). The proportion of under-reporters was 34 % (7 d FD) and 4 % (2 × 24 h DR). Most participants preferred the 7 d DR as it was more flexible, despite altering their eating habits. Pearson’s correlation between steps corrected for cycling and PAEE was r = 0·44, P < 0·01. Spearman’s correlation for self-reported hours spent in MVPA and PAEE was r = 0·58, P < 0·01. The 2 × 24 h DR performs better than the existing 7 d FD method. Pedometer-determined steps and self-reported MVPA are good predictors of PAEE in adult Danes.

Nutritional interventions often rely on subjective assessments of energy intake (EI), but these are susceptible to measurement error. To introduce an accelerometer-based intake-balance method for assessing EI using data from a time-restricted eating (TRE) trial. Nineteen participants with overweight/obesity (25–63 years old; 16 females) completed a 12-week intervention (NCT03129581) in a control group (unrestricted feeding; n 8) or TRE group (n 11). At the start and end of the intervention, body composition was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and daily energy expenditure (EE) was assessed for 2 weeks via wrist-worn accelerometer. EI was back-calculated as the sum of net energy storage (from DXA) and EE (from accelerometer). Accelerometer-derived EI estimates were compared against estimates from the body weight planner of the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK). Mean EI for the control group declined by 138 and 435 kJ/day for the accelerometer and NIDDK methods, respectively (both P ≥ 0·38), v. 1255 and 1469 kJ/day, respectively, for the TRE group (both P < 0·01). At follow-up, the accelerometer and NIDDK methods showed excellent group-level agreement (mean bias of −297 kJ/day across arms; standard error of estimate 1054 kJ/day) but high variability at the individual level (limits of agreement from −2414 to +1824 kJ/day). The accelerometer-based intake-balance method showed plausible sensitivity to change, and EI estimates were biologically and behaviourally plausible. The method may be a viable alternative to self-report EI measures. Future studies should assess criterion validity using doubly labelled water.

Body weight regulation may be influenced by the timing of food intake. The relationship between children’s BMI and their daily pattern of energy consumption was investigated using data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey 2008–2019. The sample included 6281 children aged 4–18 years. Linear and logistic regression models investigated the timing of energy intake (103 kJ) as a predictor of BMI (kg/m2) and healthy weight status. The models showed that children aged 4–10 years who consume more energy content after 20:00, in comparison with less energy content, had a significantly higher BMI (young girls: β = 0·159; 95 % CI 0·003, 0·315; P = 0·05; young boys: β = 0·166; 95 % CI 0·028, 0·304; P = 0·02). Similar findings were also present for boys aged 11–18 years (β = 0·091; 95 % CI 0·003, 0·180; P = 0·04), though logistic regression findings were contradictory (OR = 0·9566; 95 % CI 0·926, 0·989; P = 0·009). However, older girls who consumed more energy content in the morning had a significantly lower BMI (β = –0·464; 95 % CI –0·655, –0·273; P < 0·001) and a lower probability of non-healthy weight (OR = 0·901; 95 % CI 0·826, 0·982; P = 0·02). Physical activity reduced the likelihood of unhealthy weight status. The data suggest that food consumption later in the day in childhood and into adolescence may increase the risk of a higher BMI, especially for less active children. Developing guidance on appropriate meal timings and recommended energy distribution throughout the day could promote healthier lifestyles. Doing so may help increase parental awareness of timing of food intake and its potential impact on BMI.

Increasing the availability of lower energy food options is a promising public health approach. However, it is unclear the extent to which availability interventions may result in consumers later ‘compensating’ for reductions in energy intake caused by selecting lower energy food options and to what extent these effects may differ based on socio-economic position (SEP). Our objective was to examine the impact of increasing availability of lower energy meal options on immediate meal energy intake and subsequent energy intake in participants of higher v. lower SEP. In a within-subjects design, seventy-seven UK adults ordered meals from a supermarket ready meal menu with standard (30 %) and increased (70 %) availability of lower energy options. The meals were delivered to be consumed at home, with meal intake measured using the Digital Photography of Foods Method. Post-meal compensation was measured using food diaries to determine self-reported energy intake after the meal and the next day. Participants consumed significantly less energy (196 kcal (820 kJ), 95 % CI 138, 252) from the menu with increased availability of lower energy options v. the standard availability menu (P < 0·001). There was no statistically significant evidence that this reduction in energy intake was substantially compensated for (33 % compensated, P = 0·57). The effects of increasing availability of lower energy food items were similar in participants from lower and higher SEP. Increasing the availability of lower energy food options is likely to be an effective and equitable approach to reducing energy intake which may contribute to improving diet and population health.

Improving dietary reporting among people living with obesity is challenging as many factors influence reporting accuracy. Reactive Reporting may occur in response to dietary recording, but little is known about how image-based methods influence this process. Using a 4-d image-based mobile food record (mFRTM), this study aimed to identify demographic and psychosocial correlates of measurement error and reactivity bias, among adults with BMI 25–40 kg/m2. Participants (n 155, aged 18–65 years) completed psychosocial questionnaires and kept a 4-d mFRTM. Energy expenditure (EE) was estimated using ≥ 4 d of hip-worn accelerometer data, and energy intake (EI) was measured using mFRTM. EI:EE ratios were calculated, and participants in the highest tertile were considered to have Plausible Intakes. Negative changes in EI according to regression slopes indicated Reactive Reporting. Mean EI was 72 % (sd = 21) of estimated EE. Among participants with Plausible Intakes, mean EI was 96 % (sd = 13) of estimated EE. Higher BMI (OR 0·81, 95 % CI 0·72, 0·92) and greater need for social approval (OR 0·31, 95 % CI 0·10, 0·96) were associated with lower likelihood of Plausible Intakes. Estimated EI decreased by 3 % per d of recording (interquartile range − 14 %,6 %) among all participants. The EI of Reactive Reporters (n 52) decreased by 17 %/d (interquartile range − 23 %,–13 %). A history of weight loss (> 10 kg) (OR 3·4, 95 % CI 1·5, 7·8) and higher percentage of daily energy from protein (OR 1·1, 95 % CI 1·0, 1·2) were associated with greater odds of Reactive Reporting. Identification of reactivity to measurement, as well as Plausible Intakes, is recommended in community-dwelling studies to highlight and address sources of bias.