A study was conducted on the Teaching and Research Farm of the Rivers State University of Science and Technology, Nigeria to evaluate the nutritional suitability of four treatments, namely a commercial type broiler diet as compared with the commercial diet supplemented with either fresh centrosema (Centrosema molle), pueraria (Pueraria phaseoloides), or waterleaf (Talinium triangulare) leaves. These diets were fed to 120 day-old chicks (Lohmann Brown) over a 62-day period with treatments arranged in a completely randomized design (CRD). Chemical composition of broiler basal diets differed significantly from the three green foliage supplements. Dry matter (DM) of leaf meals ranged from 97.8 to 227.0 g kg−1 which was significantly (P<0.05) lower than that of broiler basal diets which averaged 900 g kg−1. Crude protein (CP) of leaf meals, however, ranged from 182.0 to 244.0 g kg−1 which was generally higher than basal diets (130–153 g kg−1). Similarly, crude fiber (CF) was highest for centrosema and pueraria leaves (330–342 g kg−1) and lowest in basal diets (164–222 g kg−1). However, ether extract (EE) and nitrogen-free extract (NFE) were significantly higher in broiler basal diets. Broiler daily and total feed intake over 62 days were similar between treatments and the control, averaging 112 g d−1, while diets containing waterleaf were slightly (2.5%) lower. Total and daily bodyweight (BW) gains (2110 g and 34 g d−1) were also similar between treatments and the control, except that gains where the broiler diet was supplemented with centrosema foliage were 2.9% higher. A higher feed conversion ratio (FCR) and lower protein efficiency ratio (PER) for the diet supplemented with pueraria indicates a higher feed efficiency and better protein efficiency in the commercial control diet. Carcass characteristics with the commercial control diet included greater (P<0.05) intestinal length and gizzard and spleen weights than with green foliage supplements. However, broiler carcass weight was generally lowest (P<0.05) in the control group (64.3 g/100 g BW) and highest in the waterleaf group (71.3 g/100 g BW). Small differences in carcass weight among the treatments tested reduces the effectiveness of green feeds for practical and economic intensive broiler production. However, increased effectiveness of green feed supplementation for broiler production might likely be observed where broilers are managed on fenced rangelands planted to selected green feeds or in integrated systems where other livestock (rabbits, sheep, goats, etc.) are jointly reared. These results support the recommendation that leaf meals of green feeds should be incorporated into broiler diets in future studies.

Weed management is often the most troublesome technical problem to be solved in organic farming, especially in poorly competitive crops like vegetables. A four-year (2000–2003) series of trials was established to assess the possibility of adopting an innovative non-chemical weed management system in organic carrot grown on the Fucino plateau, i.e., the most important carrot-growing area in Italy. The system utilized for physical weed control was based first on a false seedbed technique followed by pre-sowing weed removal, performed with a special 2 m wide 6-row spring-tine harrow. Prior to crop emergence, a pass with a flame weeder equipped with four 50 cm wide-open flame burners was also performed. Post-emergence weed control consisted of one or more hoeing passes with a purpose-designed 11-tine precision hoe equipped with spring implements (torsion weeders and vibrating tines), in addition to hand weeding. This innovative system was applied to a novel planting pattern (sowing in ten individual rows within 2 m wide beds) and compared to the standard management system of the area (sowing within 2 m wide beds but in five bands, use of spring-tine harrowing and flame weeding pre-emergence and of traditional hoeing post-emergence). The new system was tested in different commercial farms including both early and late-sown carrot. Assessments included machine operative characteristics, labor time, weed density and biomass, crop root yield and yield quality, and economic data (physical weed control costs and crop gross margin). Compared to the standard system, the innovative system usually resulted in reduced labor time (from 28 to 40%) and total costs for physical weed control (on average −416 € ha−1). Use of the precision hoe resulted in intra-row weed reduction ranging from 65 to 90%, which also led to a marked reduction in the labor required for hand weeding. In 2001 the two systems did not differ in terms of yield and yield quality, whereas in 2002 and 2003 the innovative system showed a higher mean density of carrot plants (from 28 to 55%), root yield (from 30 to 42%), and gross margin (from 40 to 100%). Carrot yield was higher in farms which adopted an early sowing whereas root commercial quality was somewhat variable between systems and years. In general, results obtained with the innovative management system look very promising.

This paper reports on the initial findings of an ongoing research project to capture differences in pest management strategies and decision-making among growers using the California Pesticide Use Reports (PUR) database. Analysis was performed for prunes in Sutter and Yuba counties to identify on-farm innovation by analyzing the PUR for best management practices to reduce pesticide use. Results showed that large variations in pesticide use were present in 2000, with a range of less than 5 kg to more than 41 kg of pesticide applied per hectare (ha) crop planted in Sutter County and a range of less than 2 kg to close to 30 kg per ha crop planted in Yuba County. Among the 42 growers selected cultivating more than 80 ha, five growers in Sutter County and three growers in Yuba County in 2000 were identified as low pesticide use growers. The results indicated a surprising number of low to no fungicide users and an even higher number of growers using no herbicides in both counties. Twenty-nine viable low pesticide use growers were identified overall among the total 294 growers in the Sutter and Yuba counties. However, there were no spatial patterns of where these low pesticide use growers' fields were located. The transition from higher-risk active ingredients (AIs) to reduced-risk AIs used by many of the low pesticide users suggests intentional substitution. Initial yield data indicate that quantity and quality were not adversely affected by low use growers employing reduced-risk pesticides, fewer (AIs) per field, and lower rates per chemical than their moderate to high use counterparts. Diverse collaborators consisting of university researchers, environmental and community organizations, state government scientists, and growers worked together throughout the entire project, beginning with defining the research parameters, then interpreting the results, and finally suggesting practical applications for the outcomes. The paper also highlights the effectiveness of using such collaborative research relationships to explore low pesticide use alternatives, to directly exchange research findings with growers, and to encourage a farmer-to-farmer extension model.

A critical step in the quantification of soil quality (SQ) is the selection of SQ benchmarks. The benchmarks used in this study were SQ ratings made by 32 farmer collaborators representing a range of farming systems, scales of operation and geographic locations in the Mid-Atlantic region of USA. Soils from 45 pairs of sites identified by their farmers as having good and poor SQ were sampled over three seasons and analyzed for 19 soil parameters. Farmer judgments of SQ were based on many factors, most commonly soil organic matter, crop performance, soil water availability and erosion history. Selected individual soil parameters were normalized and integrated into an additive SQ index (SQI). Three additional indices were developed using discriminant analysis. The level of agreement between individual parameters, SQIs and farmer SQ ratings was evaluated using paired t-tests and mean percent difference values. The additive SQI was found to have the highest level of agreement with farmer SQ ratings (P<0.0001), demonstrating that a linear combination of soil parameters can be assembled that is more in agreement with holistic SQ criteria, such as farmer SQ ratings, than individual soil parameters. Extractable C from microwave (MW) sterilized soil (a measure of microbial biomass) was the individual parameter that best agreed with farmer SQ ratings (P<0.0001). Five additional soil C parameters, as well as aggregate stability, also agreed well with farmer SQ ratings (all P values <0.0005). The three parameters with the highest ratio of mean percent difference to coefficient of variation (an indication of parameter reliability) were extractable C from MW sterilized soil, anthrone reactive C and macroaggregate stability (14.2, 7.7 and 3.7, respectively). Mineral fertility parameters (pH, Ca, Ca:Mg ratio, P and K) were not significantly related to farmer SQ ratings (P values >0.05). The strong relationships observed between soil C parameters, soil structural parameters and farmer SQ ratings suggest that efforts to improve SQ in the study region should focus on monitoring and enhancement of soil C and soil structure.

Systems advocating alternative agriculture would appear to be handicapped by the amount and the minutiae of human labor required. Is this really a threat to the continuity of farms associated with these systems? We do not believe that this directly hampers the survival of a farm. We advance the theory that continuity is not just down to chance; the farmer at the time chooses to prolong the life of the farm and more especially to look for a successor. We have shown through a study conducted in central France (Auvergne) that the main guarantee of organizational sustainability, that which sustains the business as a viable entity when another person takes over, is when a farmer thinks of his farm as an entity-cum-project supporting a meaningful life plan. A farmer might also see his farm solely as capital or as heritage, but neither of these last two attitudes is sufficient for him to ensure the spirit of his enterprise is passed on. There is a particularly large number of farmers in the first category (entity-cum-project) who adopt alternative farming practices, which are meaningful. It also seems to be the case that the manner of working is closely linked to the moral principles of farmers who use alternative systems. Moreover, the same objective amount of work that might be thought excessive in a system that puts strong emphasis on high productivity, is regarded as normal in an alternative system. Farmers often approach extension advisors to help reorganize their working conditions. We maintain that alternative systems have peculiarities with regard to work that make this type of advice difficult. Our aim is to help advisors clearly construct the input they give to the various types of farmers. We put forward a typology of possible practices as regards advice on work, according to assessments farmers have made about the amount of work they do and their way of working. The large number of hours devoted to an alternative farming activity and the nature of that activity, whether demanding or linked to practices thought archaic, are not always a handicap to the continuity of an alternative system. On the contrary, these features can be its hallmark.

Draft animal power (DAP) has been identified as an environmentally friendly technology that is based on renewable energy and encompasses integration of livestock and crop production systems. Draft animal technology provides farmers with a possibility to cheaply access and use manure from the draft animals and farm power needed to apply renewable practices for land intensification. Compared to motorized mechanization, DAP is viewed as an appropriate and affordable technology especially for small-scale farmers in developing countries who cannot afford the expensive fuel-powered tractor mechanization. However, it is apparent that there is no consensus among researchers on how it affects crop yields, profit and production efficiency when applied in farm operations. This study addressed the question of whether using DAP increases economic efficiency of smallholder maize producers in central Kenya. Results of the study are derived from a sample of 80 farmers, 57% of whom used draft animals while 43% used hand hoes in carrying farm operations. In the study area, draft animals are almost exclusively used for land preparation and planting, with very few farmers applying them in the consecutive operations such as weeding. A profit function was estimated to test the hypothesis of equal economic efficiency between ‘DAP’ and ‘hoe’ farms. The results showed that farmers who used DAP obtained higher yields and operated at a higher economic efficiency compared to those who used hand hoes. The analysis underscores the viability of DAP in increasing profitability of small-scale farms; however, other aspects of the technology, such as affordability of the whole DAP package, availability of appropriate implements and skills of using the technology, must be taken into account when promoting adoption of DAP technology.

Black Sigatoka, caused by the leaf fungus Mycosphaerella fijiensis Morelet, is a major constraint to banana production around the world. In Ecuador, the biggest banana-exporting country in the world, this disease has become increasingly aggressive. This has resulted in more fungicide applications, which have significantly increased costs in production and for the environment. Consequently, many banana growers have shifted to organic production, which produces greater economic returns as a result of higher sale prices. In addition, production costs are lower as no fungicides are applied. These organic bananas receive substantial amounts of organic products. This study describes the black Sigatoka disease and nutrient status in an organic banana plantation and compares it with a conventionally fertilized and fungicide-treated plantation. Black Sigatoka symptoms were evaluated in the vegetative and flowering stages under both production conditions and in vitro conditions. Univariate and multivariate descriptive statistics were used to analyze the parameters. Disease symptoms were more severe in leaves from the organic field than in leaves from the inorganic field, but the nutrient status (soil and foliar) did not differ between the two farms. Banana plants from the organic farm had 12 functional leaves at flowering and eight functional leaves at harvest. Average banana yields were over 40% lower for organic versus inorganic management; however, the average price received for organic bananas was over two times higher. Profit–cost analysis has shown that the organic banana farm was substantially more profitable than the inorganic one during the time period analyzed. These results indicated that bananas can be grown commercially without fungicides, and the lower productivity levels are compensated by higher prices of organic fruits in international markets. In addition, organic production has beneficial impacts on social and environmental issues.

The excessive use of mineral fertilizers affects soil quality, gives rise to environmental problems and consumes energy. In contrast, organic amendment may improve soil quality at the same time as providing nutrients to plant. The aim of the work was to study the effects on crop yield and soil microbial activity of the successive addition of mineral fertilizers and fresh pig slurry before each successive crop compared with one sole application of different pig slurry composts (solid fraction of a pig slurry (CSFPS) and fresh pig slurry plus wood shavings (1:1 v/v; CPS+WS) before planting the first crop. Compost-treated soils exhibited higher organic carbon content than inorganically fertilized soils, throughout the experimental period. However, N content in the former soils was lower than in the latter after the second crop. Nevertheless, yields obtained with repeated additions of fresh pig slurry or with a sole application of pig slurry composts were similar to those obtained with repeated mineral fertilization. After the horticultural crops, organically treated soils generally showed higher values of both microbial biomass and metabolic microbial activity (measured as basal respiration and dehydrogenase activity) than the soil receiving mineral fertilization. Subsequently, the organically amended soils showed higher protease, phosphatase and β-glucosidase activities than the inorganically fertilized soil and similar levels of urease activity. From this study it can be concluded that both fresh and composted pig slurry can be used as an alternative for mineral fertilizer in growing horticultural crops and maintaining soil quality.

The farmers of the Apatani tribe in Arunachal Pradesh, India have been raising a concurrent crop of fish successfully in their mountain valley rice plots for the past 40 years. They follow indigenous rice agronomy, ignoring the use of fertilizers, pesticides and even supplementary feed for the fish reared in the system. However, the yield levels of fish, ranging from 250 to 500 kg ha−1season−1, clearly support the role of other available resources within their wet rice fields. The investigation revealed that the rice itself provided the substrates for colonization and growth of periphyton. The colonized periphytic contents (1406–13513 no. cm−2 stem−1) on rice stems and other natural fish feeds within the system seem to have direct effect in this regard. The Apatani technique of rice–fish integration may be considered as one of the periphyton-based aquaculture (PBA) systems which deserve further research attention.

Fatal flaws in the recent report from Badgley et al. claiming that organic agriculture ‘could produce enough food on a global per capita basis to sustain the current human population, and potentially an even larger population, without increasing the agricultural land base’. Among the serious problems identified: over 100 non-organic yield studies were claimed as organic; organic yields were misreported; false comparisons were made to unrepresentative low non-organic yields; high organic yields were counted 2, 3, even 5 times by citing different papers that referenced the same data; favorable and unverifiable ‘studies’ from biased sources were given equal weight to rigorous university studies. This report is being submitted to the Editor of the journal, Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, for publication and response. It is only being released in the interest of public debate and discussion during the much-touted ‘organic fortnight’.