Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of highly conserved molecules that initiate innate immune responses to pathogens by recognizing structural motifs. In response to pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), TLRs induce the production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates (ROI and RNI), inflammatory cytokines and up regulate the expression of co-stimulatory molecules, subsequently initiating adaptive immunity. Ten chicken TLR genes have been identified and their association with various diseases has been ascertained. This review concerns chicken toll-like receptors, their structure, expression, signalling, and their role in innate and adaptive immunity and disease resistance. It is concluded that TLR genes could be used as molecular markers for genetic selection for the improvement of disease resistance and TLR agonists as potential adjuvants in future vaccines.

Egg Drop Syndrome 1976 (EDS- 76) is a viral disease of laying birds characterized by a sudden drop in egg production, failure to achieve peak production and the laying of poor quality eggs. It has been reported to affect a wide range of birds including turkeys and layers and is a major constraint to the profitability of egg production in both commercial and village laying birds. This paper is a review of the epidemiology of EDS-76 virus infection in various species of poultry in Nigeria, with emphasis on the susceptibility of species, types and ages. Also examined are the economic impacts, challenges and prospects of EDS-76 virus management and control. This review will be of assistance in the formulation of an effective strategy for proper management and control of the disease in the field.

Layer breeding companies apply selection criteria to improve over 30 traits important for commercial egg production. Intensive selection for egg production over the decades has resulted in a significant reduction in genetic and phenotypic variations in egg production, however the decrease in genetic variation observed in commercial lines are not yet critical. Peak production now approaches the biological limit of one egg a day, but in early production (at sexual maturity) and late production (persistency) genetic variation is still high. Including these traits in the selection criteria will improve the egg production in commercial birds. Due to high heritability and the absence of any significant negative effects on production parameters, residual feed consumption is used as selection criteria to improve the feed efficiency. Considerable research has been carried out on egg weight, eggshell strength and internal quality of the eggs and improvements have been made as a result of selection. With the reintroduction of floor system and increased consumer interest in processed eggs, in future more emphases have to be given to the eggshell strength and internal quality of the eggs. Poultry production in the unfavourable environmental conditions of the tropics is hindered by direct and indirect heat stress leading to a general depression in performance. Results on the utilisation of naked-neck and frizzle gene in high-ambient temperatures is encouraging, and, in future, will play an important role in production of layer lines suitable for overcoming such genotype-environment interaction. Feather pecking is an undesirable behaviour, which causes major problems in non-cage systems. Several authors have identified a hereditary basis of feather pecking behaviour, which is suggested by strain differences. Hence, selection of birds with no or very low tendency to perform feather pecking should reduce the incidence. Recent molecular genetic studies resulted in identification of QTL affecting different economic traits and identification of candidate genes causing variation in performance among birds. In future these findings will play a major role in further genetic improvement of layers without any negative effect.

Despite the suggested health advantages of traditionally- over industrially-produced western 'regular' eggs and the flexibility of egg composition, studies on the effects of egg intake refer mostly to quantity and lack qualitative information. The possibility of lending differential nutritional enhancement and functional advantages, i.e. vs. cardiovascular disease (CVD) or for perinatal health, could impact the current egg intake debate. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)/long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) fortification of regular eggs by feeding extruded linseed (5%) yielded 3.8-fold higher total n-3 PUFA and 2.4-fold higher docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), with 3.6-fold lower n-6:n-3 PUFA ratio (p≤0.0005). This resulted in human dietary contributions of 10-20% of the n-3 PUFA Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) and 40% for DHA. Together with antioxidants, they may be beneficial against CVD risks as associated with oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, dyslipidemia, and inflammatory processes, especially in diabetics. Eggs fortified via poultry feed supplementation could attain higher %DRI for pregnancy or lactation for key nutrients, i.e. DHA (≈120- 130%), vitamins A (9.0-15.2%) and E (51.6-65.3%), iodine (15.2-20.1%), and selenium (33.7-39.3%). For infants aged 1-3 years, the improvement in %DRI for vitamins, minerals, and n-3 PUFA needed during peak brain development could be even higher. Compared to increased low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidation as seen with intake of two regular high n-6 PUFA eggs/day, eggs with reduced n-6 PUFA (by 40%), increased n-9 monounsaturated FA (MUFA) (by 30%), reduced PUFA:MUFA ratio (by 50%), and increased antioxidants vitamin E and carotenoids (by >200%), were associated with a 30% drop in LDL oxidisability (p<0.01), back to levels seen with a low-egg diet (2-4 eggs/week). Because egg composition is highly feed-dependent and closely affects plasma nutrients and lipoprotein composition and physiological qualities, it has much potential for imparting both nutritional and functional benefits. Poultry feeding could be carefully tailored for egg modification to address specific risks and requirements in consumers, warranting further research regarding differential effects and corresponding quantitative recommendations for egg intake, to maximise beneficial and preventative potential.

The poultry industry in Nigeria constitutes an important agricultural enterprise to the nation, contributing substantially to the nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). This paper will assess certain poultry management practices and disease recognition by poultry farmers in Maiduguri in the Borno State of Nigeria, with the view of improving poultry production in this part of the country. The assessment was carried out by questionnaire, which sought information on poultry management systems, flock size, housing, vaccination, use of antibiotics and disease recognition. Two hundred and fifty copies of the questionnaire were distributed to poultry farmers in Maiduguri via day-old-chick sellers, poultry-feed sellers, and staff of poultry units at the State Veterinary and University of Maiduguri Teaching Hospitals. The results of the questionnaire showed that small-holder farmers made up the majority of producer (24.3%), whilst farmers who maintained flock size of greater than 500 chickens were in the minority (13.3%). Most of the farmers (82.7%: N = 173) in Maiduguri use deep litter rearing systems. Half zinc, half wire mesh open–sided poultry houses formed the greater proportion (47.7%) of poultry housing maintained by poultry farmers in the study area. Furthermore, non-adherence to full vaccination schedules (56.7%) and use of multiple antibiotics (72.3%) for chemoprophylaxis in poultry were common. Diarrhoea (39.9%), ruffled feathers (31.8%) and respiratory rales/panting (27.2%) were common signs observed by poultry farmers as part of their disease recognition. The poultry industry in Maiduguri still faces serious constraints due to management practices, such as bad housing, inadequate vaccination and high mortality possibly due to multiple antibiotics resistance resulting from multiple antibiotics usage.

The study was conducted to determine the selected commercial practises of broiler-producing farmers in Bangladesh, broiler production performance, the relationship between management practices and broiler performance and the problems faced by farmers involved with broiler production. Two hundred and fifty broiler-producing farmers in Modhukhali upazilla constituted the population of the study. One hundred and twenty broiler farmers were randomly selected from this population as the sample. Data were collected under the supervision of researchers with the help of a monitoring schedule and pre-tested interview schedule from December 2007 to June 2008. The majority (78%) of farmers reported low to medium performance in broiler production, and only 22% reported high performance. Education, land possession, annual family income, training exposure, broiler farming experience, broiler farm size, capital in broiler farming and extension contact for farmers all had a significant bearing on performance, while credit needs, problem faced in broiler farming and feed conversion ratio had significant negative relationship with productive performance. On the basis of the ‘Problem Faced Index’, the high price of broiler feeds ranked first, followed by the cost of chicks, high mortality, low quality feed, cold temperatures (12-15°C) in winter, cost of medication and high rainfall in the rainy season.

In spite of the large amounts of money invested in research, breeding, and the improvement of commercial egg-type strains, high environmental temperature (HET) has been identified as a major non-genetic constraint limiting expression of their full genetic potential. This environmental stressor has been implicated in adverse marked effects on egg production and eggshell quality of hens. Reports have conclusively indicated that poor performance (i.e. drop in egg production and poor eggshell quality) of layers reared in thermally-stressed environments could be adduced to a complex interplay of low feed intake, malfunctioning of the endocrine system, acid-base imbalance and poor physiological functioning of organs and mechanisms connected with the entire egg production process, via follicular recruitment and growth, ovulation, egg formation, shell formation, egg development, oviposition and oviposition interval.

Fowl typhoid caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Gallinarum is one of the most important bacterial diseases of poultry. The present study was undertaken to ascertain the epidemiological status of fowl typhoid in broilers in Haryana for the past four years (2005-2008) and to establish the role of hatcheries in spreading the Salmonella infection. A total of 227 outbreaks of fowl typhoid were recorded in chickens during the period from January 2005 to December 2008. The maximum number of outbreaks (96) was recorded in the age group of 7-9 days during the past four years. Maximum mortality and case fatality rate were found in chickens of 1-2 weeks of age. Temporal distribution of the disease indicates more outbreaks in extreme weather conditions. From spatial distribution of the disease, it was evident that the disease was prevalent in nine districts of Haryana out of 20. By analysing the data regarding the prevalence of Salmonella infection in hatcheries, more than one third (37.8%) of hatcheries were found to be infected with Salmonella, which is an alarming situation for the region.

In the cold, arid Himalayan region of India, where the altitude is 3048-3658 m above mean sea level (MSL) and the temperature ranges from +35°C to -35°C, poultry farming is very difficult. Poultry farming in Leh-Ladakh has been a venture that has generally taken a back seat in this cold, arid region for a number of reasons. In this region, the Buddhist community makes up most of the population, and, because of their largely vegetarian lifestyle; they generally avoid killing animals in principal. Another reason is the lack of availability of any specific high yielding variety of layer or broiler breed in this high altitude region. Typically, the existing local poultry breeds exhibit very poor egg and meat production. Further factors which have influenced poultry production are the unavailability of poultry feed and the existence of harsh climatic conditions. The status of poultry rearing in this region is not encouraging, with the current total population of poultry birds limited to just a few thousand. There are many constraints contributing to this, including limited availability of feed, lack of subsidies, religious sentiments, lack of availability of suitable germ plasm, limited poultry feed ingredients, and poor knowledge regarding poultry farming. Furthermore, the housing of poultry is difficult in this cold, arid climate. Maintaining the optimum temperature of 25 to 35°C inside brooder and 15 to 20°C inside grower and layer housing requires modifications to the design of traditional poultry housing. The different types of housing available for use in this area are above- ground mud walled poly sheds, semi-underground mud or stone walled houses, trombay wall sheds and solar poultry houses. Fertility and hatchability are therefore the main problems in this area. The problems of poultry farming in high altitude and their solutions have been addressed in this paper.

Currently broiler chickens are genetically selected for improved feed conversion ratio and rapid growth rate. This rapid growth rate is generally based on a high rate of feed intake and not due to an increased nutrient digestibility. Increased body weight gain, in turn, is found to be negatively correlated with antibody response (total antibody response and specific anti-sheep red blood cell (SRBC)) in broilers. The interactions between commensal bacteria and GALT immune systems are considered to be the basic mechanism of the host against invading pathogens; achieved by forming bio films and by binding to the intestinal epithelium and therefore effectively blocking the sites from pathogens. Apart from the fact that NSP may shift microbial populations toward beneficial micro-organisms to stimulate the immune system, recent evidence has assumed that exogenous xylanase majorly degraded NSP to oligosaccharides and released more phenolics to act as anti-oxidants. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the dietary fibre anti-oxidants existing in insoluble NSP may actually quench the soluble radicals that are continuously formed in intestinal tracts. During the first week post-hatch, the intestinal immune system may be developed by colonization with beneficial bacteria and enhanced competition with invading pathogens. NSP and associate substrates might not only provide substrates for beneficial bacteria but play an important part in removing free radicals.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, Dr D. Grastilleur, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.

Arginine is an essential amino acid for chickens due to the absence of a functional urea cycle in birds. Arginine plays critical roles in metabolic pathways associated with growth and immune-competence. Likewise, as a precursor of nitric oxide synthesis, arginine is important as the key vasodilator that opposes the onset of pulmonary hypertension in broiler (meat-type) chickens. Dietary arginine levels in commercial broiler diets meet NRC recommendations. However, this review shows that NRC recommendations may not be adequate to support maximal growth, support arginine-depleting immune responses, and prevent the onset of pulmonary hypertension in broilers reared under rigorous environmental conditions. Dietary composition is highly important and broiler performance may suffer when insufficient levels of arginine are included in the diet. Fortification of broiler diets with supplemental arginine may be necessary under such circumstances.

This paper reviews the major pathways through which the growth of poultry farming can contribute to improved nutrition and poverty reduction in India, including direct benefits from poultry farming, employment generation along the poultry value chain, and consumption of poultry meat and eggs. Poultry farming and full (or part) time employment along the supply chain only represent a path out of poverty for a limited number of households, whereas increased availability and affordability of poultry meat and eggs for both rural and urban poor, which are mostly net buyers of food, is the most effective way through which poultry sector development can contribute to improved nutrition (and poverty reduction). Public investments in support of backyard poultry farming development remain important for enhancing nutritional status and reducing vulnerability of many rural households. The promotion of selected small-scale market-oriented poultry units in rural areas is expected to contribute to improved nutrition and rural economic growth through increased supply and lower prices of animal proteins and second round productivity and employment effects. Large-scale commercial poultry integrators have comparative and competitive advantages in providing urban consumers, many of which also live below the poverty line, with affordably-priced poultry meat and eggs.

Goose feather and down is a renewable natural product valued for its peculiar quality properties. This material is largely obtained after the slaughter of waterfowl and on a smaller scale by harvesting from live geese at time of moulting. During the course of slaughter and processing, feather and down is exposed to various unfavourable effects which degrade its quality. Conversely, the feather and down harvested by hand from live geese is superior to the industrial feather product in several respects. However, animal rights activist groups recently began to protest vigorously against the hand-harvesting of feathers from live geese. To this end, they frequently display images of illegal live-harvesting or live-plucking in the media which differs markedly from the proper practice regulated by the law. Live-plucking is prohibited by EU legislation, and the Hungarian laws and regulations approve the live-harvesting of mature feathers at time of moulting according to the rules specified. This procedure is based on the inherent moulting characteristics of domestic geese (i.e. shorter feather maturation with more frequent moults compared to wild geese) and is technically feasible without any harm to the goose, its well-being or production, as evidenced by clinical and productivity data. Illegal hand-harvesting of feathers differing from the approved practice is strictly penalised in Hungary and cruelty to animals is defined as a crime.

Growth promoters are feed additives used to improve the rate and uniformity of broiler growth whilst increasing feed efficiency. Low, prophylactic doses of antibiotics have been standard practice. The development of direct antibiotic resistance of pathogens in the species receiving the feed, as well as the indirect resistance to similar antibiotics used in human medicine as the result of food chain residues, led to the suspension of the licenses for several major antibiotics in the European Union since 1971, and in 2006 licenses for all sub-therapeutic levels for growth promotion were withdrawn. Therefore, there is great interest in developing natural alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters in order to maintain both bird performance and health. Nigella sativa (black cumin) has been used – in herbal medicine- for centuries for treatment of various disorders including infections. The following review details recent studies on the potential benefits of black cumin in broilers and laying hens performance.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, Dr D. Grastilleur, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.

The World’s Poultry Science Journal is indebted to Prof J.A. Castello, Prof D.K. Flock, Dr D. Grastilleur, Dr S. Cherepanov and Prof N. Yang for the translations of these summaries.

A survey was carried out, involving layer chicken farmers to identify and inventory the different feed components and to determine their rates of incorporation in poultry feed rations, as well as to inventory different layer lines or commercial crosses raised in Togo and finally to determine their production performances. During the survey, samples of feed ingredients and complete layer diets were collected for crude protein (CP) and gross energy (GE) levels determination. The survey indicated that 15 different feed components were used in the formulation of layer feed rations. Among these components, corn was the most important component (52.60±2.58%) followed by wheat bran (16.11±2.72%), roasted soya (11.40±1.91%), fish meal (8.29±1.64%) and cotton seed (7.57±1.58%). Rates of incorporation of these components in the feed ration varied according to the producer and the age of chickens, as there are no established standard requirements for layer feed in Togo currently. The survey revealed that average layer numbers per farm increased from 329 to 520 chickens between 2001 and 2005. Several layers strains or commercial crosses are present in Togo, however, only Isa Brown (IB), Harco and Hisex White (HW) were considered important. Productive performances were comparable between these three strains. It was concluded that promotion of the local egg industry in Togo should focus on the establishment of hatchery, proficient feed mill units, providing information about management practices and training those involved in the sector on appropriate technologies.