In 1995, the Member Governments of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations resolved that their Secretariat would develop the Global Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources for country use. One of the sub-elements of this strategy is the establishment of a Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources. A snapshot of this Global Databank was analysed and synthesized in form of an extensive inventory known as the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity (WWL-DAD). The 3rd edition (WWL-DAD:3) based on data collected up to November 1999 contains per-country reports for 16 mammalian and 14 avian species including a total of 6379 breed entries. Breed data recorded for 14 avian species encompasses only 16% (1049) of total breed entries. The majority (89%) of avian breeds recorded falls into one of the five major avian species: chicken (71%), duck (8%), goose (6%), turkey (3%) and muscovy duck (2%). For chicken, turkey and goose, most breeds are recorded in Europe, but largest number of duck breeds is found in Asia and the Pacific region. The proportional share of the global population size is greatest for Asia and the Pacific region for all major avian species except turkey, for which most records were from Europe. Of the 938 avian breeds of the five species, 460 (49%) breeds have been classified as being at risk of loss, whereas for 182 breeds (19%) no population data were available. Availability of recorded data differs considerably between regions and classification of breeds into the different risk status categories refers only to population within a given country. Therefore, data cannot be interpreted in a global way and the identification of breeds with highest risk of loss is complicated due to overlap of records of the same breed in different countries as well as missing data. Next steps should consequently be the strengthening of surveying and data collection activities, the improvement of breed data quality and the assessment of between breed variation by modern molecular tools as outlined in the FAO's proposed project on Maintenance of Domestic Animal Genetic Diversity (MoDAD).

In the first part of this review (Surai, 2002), the antioxidant properties and pro-oxidant activity of Se have been described. In spite of a long history, our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of Se action in human and animals are still in their initial stages. Indeed Se is an integral part of various selenoproteins with glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) being the first selenoprotein identified in 1973. Se's participation in antioxidant defence and in the regulation of redox status of the cell could explain its importance to various physiological functions, especially to reproduction. Chicken embryo tissues and spermatozoa are rich in long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and as a result are very vulnerable to lipid peroxidation. Therefore Se is a crucial factor in maintaining appropriate antioxidant defence during embryonic development and spermatogenesis. In conditions of stress in commercial poultry production the beneficial effects of Se are difficult to overestimate. From egg storage before incubation, when lipid peroxidation can occur, to the final day of egg production, Se participates in preventing the damaging effects of free radicals and toxic products of their metabolism. Dietary antioxidant supplementation in general and organic Se supplementation in particular are considered to be major protective measures for maintaining high productive and reproductive characteristics in poultry.

Prevention and control of mycotoxins in the poultry production chain requires the knowledge and consideration of all factors influencing mycotoxin formation in the field and during the storage of feedstuffs. Mycotoxin effects on health and performance of poultry and the ‘carry over’ of mycotoxins or their metabolites into foodstuffs of animal origin are also essential information elements.

Among a number of known my cotoxins, the Fusarium-mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of special importance under European production conditions because of their high frequency and concentrations. Several plant production strategies might help to minimize the risk of formation of these mycotoxins. However, higher mean values are unavoidable under unfavourable weather conditions. Therefore, special care must be taken in so-called ‘Fusurium-years’, because poultry is regarded as less sensitive to these mycotoxins than pigs and suspect cereal batches will be diverted to poultry feeding.

Higher dietary DON-concentrations adversely affect the performance and immune response of poultry at dietary concentrations of greater than 5 mg per kg diet. In contrast, zearalenone, which often co-occurs with DON, does not cause deleterious effects in poultry even in ‘Fusurium-years’ when higher concentrations are measured. ‘Carry over’ of both toxins into poultry products is very low and is negligible when the DON-concentration of the diet is restricted to this 5 mg per kg.

The levels of further Fusurium mycotoxins such as T-2 toxin, fumonisins, moniliformin or beauvericin to be expected in Europe are too low to cause toxic effects in poultry. However, several combinations of co-occurring mycotoxins might influence the total toxic potential of a contaminated feedstuff.

Several feed-processing procedures are suitable for reducing the DON-content of contaminated feedstuffs, but they are expensive or have been only lab-tested. Adsorbing agents were shown to either only weakly bind DON, or not to bind it at all in vitro, and to be ineffective in vivo. More recent efforts have been directed at employing the capability of several micro-organisms (bacteria and yeasts) to degrade DON for detoxification in situ.

The commercial turkey market changed during the last two or three decades from predominantly whole turkey to mostly further processed products as consumer demand for breast meat and convenience increased in most western countries. Turkey operations focus on selection in breeding, management, and feeding programs to obtain a high breast meat yield. Main factors that affect breast meat yield are age, weight, sex, strain, genetic selection, and nutrition. The degree of influence by these factors on breast meat yield is highly dependent upon environmental conditions, especially ambient temperatures. This review deals with the response of commercial male turkeys on dietary lysine to energy ratios in moderate and hot climate conditions. A range dietary lysine to energy ratios have been determined to be optimal during each successive four-week period after hatch: 1.12 to 1.65, 1.10 to 1.36, 0.76 to 1.15, 0.64 to 0.81, and 0.53 to 0.86 g dietary lysine per MJ of ME, respectively). These optimum ranges in lysine to energy ratios are partly due to the continuous changes in genetic potential for growth and environmental effects on feed intake. Commercial male turkeys weighed about 18.5 kg at 140 days of age with a feed: gain ratio of 2.6 in 2001, as compared to about 8.0 kg at 220 days of age with a feed: gain ratio of 3.0 in 1966. Moreover, there is clear evidence in scientific literature that feed intake, and thus protein intake is negatively affected by short or long periods of heat stress in moderate and hot climates, respectively. Although some research included ambient temperature as a treatment variable in nutritional requirement studies with turkeys, most have been conducted at moderate temperatures. Feeding turkeys to minimize the adverse effects of heat stress is a big challenge for the modern turkey industry. More research is needed to better understand the relationship between dietary energy and lysine at different climatic conditions.

Phosphorus (P) is receiving considerable attention with regard to poultry litter in the United States. Litter, a combination of bedding material and excreta, contains valuable nutrients and has been historically applied as fertilizer on pasture and row crop lands. Compared to commercial fertilizers, broiler litter has a low nitrogen to phosphorus ratio. Poultry litter application rates have been based on the nitrogen needs of crops resulting in a gradual build-up of Pin the soil. Phosphorus runoff into nearby water bodies can be detrimental to aquatic life. Proper management of litter is critical to maintaining the farmer's environmental stewardship. Many researchers are investigating best management practices to alleviate potential problems related to over application of P. However, gaps exist among the researchers due to their specialty and training.

Communication across groups (nutritionists verses soil scientists) is the key for making progress. For example, the agronomist's plan for utilization of litter should coincide with the nutritionist's specifications for P requirements. This article identifies some of the more commonly used terms that define the forms of P in an effort to unite the different perspectives. The purpose is to convey the complexity of the xisting efforts for P analysis, identifying factors that influence changes in chemical forms such as dietary Plevel, Psource and characteristics, the use of dietary phytase in rearing conditions, subsequent litter handling, and conditions of litter application. The end result should create a “cause and effect” type thinking among the groups working on the broiler industry P issues.

Poultry meat and eggs are important sources of human pathogens. Salmonella is a major cause of human foodborne infections following consumption of poultry products. The original ambition of the EU to eradicate zoonotic agents from the animal production chain has been tempered to reducing the infection pressure of specified zoonotic agents at all levels of the production chain. This can be done by a combination of pre-harvest, harvest and post-harvest measures. Feed additives constitute an important group of pre-harvest measures which can help in controlling Salmonella on the farm. Feed additives used for the control of Salmonella can be of different types, including antibiotics, prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics. Public concerns regarding possible antibiotic resistance transfer lead to the ban of antibiotics as growth promoters in monogastric diets within the EU. Experimental and practical use of pre-, pro- and synbiotics, as well as volatile fatty acids as feed additives are discussed in this review. The effects of these additives on resistance to infection, on the extent of excretion and on the persistence of infection are reviewed. Attention is paid also to possible undesirable effects of some of these products. Taking into consideration the underestimated high level of contamination of poultry, the feed additives reviewed in this article can certainly play a valuable part in control strategies during the pre-harvest phase aiming at reducing the infection pressure and thus limiting the risk of contamination of poultry products.

This paper discusses materials used as bedding or litter for the rearing of broilers and turkeys in the U.S.A. The U.S. poultry industry has historically used pine shavings as the litter of choice for many years. Sawdust has replaced pine shavings in many areas, however, not by choice, but because pine shavings have become increasingly difficult to obtain. Regionally, rice hulls, straw, and peanut hulls can be found in use by poultry producers for litter. Re-cycled paper products have received a lot of research and development, but have not had a great deal of acceptance by the poultry industry. Sand is another alternative bedding that is currently being tested in southern climates. Alternative litter materials for poultry will continue to be researched and evaluated, and pine shavings or sawdust will probably continue to be used as the benchmark comparison. However, while bird performance will always be a threshold criterion, cost and availability will ultimately determine the adoption of new or alternative litter materials by poultry growers and the poultry industry.

From primary production and on through the whole processing line, the poultry house microflora will be transferred into the processing plant, and further on in the process, onto exterior parts of the birds as well in their gut microflora. This is particularly true for Salmonella. In this paper, the major stages of poultry processing are considered with regard to the potential spread of Salmonella. Most of the data referred to in this review applies to broiler chickens.

Cross contamination occurs especially during scalding, defeathering, head pulling, evisceration and chilling. The poultry meat processing line does not have any killing capability for Salmonella. At present, effective barriers that might be able to control Salmonella do not exist. It would be useful to develop more techniques and procedures than are presently available.

Several other options for intervention to control Salmonella already exist. Although generally known, these have not yet been incorporated into the production sequence. They include the implementation of other processing actions such as flaming; changes of machinery design for example in scalding tanks and transport containers. It would also be helpful to base operational designs of machinery for scalding and crate washing more on scientific data such as time-temperature-relations in calculation of Salmonella death rates.

However, none of these actions alone would be able to solve the problem, an integrated approach is needed.

More data on flock Salmonella status is needed at critical stages during broiler growout. Also requirements for special products such as minimally processed meat must be examined, and more quantitative data are needed to calculate time-temperature relations more precisely.

Family poultry production (FP), which is still important in low-income food-deficit countries, is an appropriate system to supply the fast-growing human population with high quality protein. It can also provide additional incorne to the generally resource-poor small farmers, especially women. Although requiring low levels of inputs, FP contributes significantly to food security, poverty alleviation and ecologically sound management of natural resources. FP is also a source of employment for underprivileged groups in many local communities. However, constraints facing FP production systems include poor management conditions and poorly developed marketing structures for the products. The skills of small farmers in all aspects of poultry management must be improved through training and education. Poultry farmers should also be provided with credits or loans, taking into account the economic circumstances and socio-cultural context in which the beneficiaries live. In addition, the marketing system must be improved, for the benefit of both FP keepers and consumers.

Due to public demands for enhanced water quality, American poultry producers are being subjected to increased regulation by both the federal and state governments. Under the authority of the US Clean Water Act, concentrated animal feeding operations, including some poultry producers, must secure a discharge permit and adopt comprehensive nutrient management plans. State regulations concerning the closure of operations are also affecting producers. Depending on the state regulation, private insurance, guarantees, surety bonds, letters of credit, or payments may be required. A few states and a proposed federal regulation seek to expand the operations covered by discharge permits. Under this concept, co-permitting regulations would hold integrators responsible for permit violations. With these proposals, the poultry industry is presented with a number of opportunities to help structure regulations that help achieve improved water quality while preserving the economic viability of producers' business enterprises.

A study was undertaken on duck farming in a North-eastern part of India (Assam), representing almost all the agro-climatic zones. Five districts were selected, one from each agro-climatic zone except for the hill area. Twenty-five duck farmers from each district, a total of 125 in all, were selected on the basis of flock size. Results of the study in respect of socio-economic status of the farmer, demographic distribution, husbandry and feeding practice, production performance, incidence of diseases, mortality pattern and health protection programmes, marketing, finance and costs and returns from the flocks are highlighted.