In F2 progeny, derived from F1 hybrids, shoot growth of seedlings, measured 4 d after germination, distinguished susceptible (S) and resistant (R) phenotypes. Chisquare values indicated that the F2 data fit a 3:1 (S:R) ratio for both populations and all trifluralin concentrations in which S and R phenotypes could be differentiated. Results indicate that trifluralin resistance in these green foxtail populations is controlled by a single, nuclear recessive gene. This study is the first to demonstrate recessive gene control of herbicide resistance in a weed species. The highly selfed nature and prolific seed production of green foxtail may have facilitated evolution of the recessive trait.

Fluometuron adsorption and degradation were determined in soil collected at three depths from no-till + no cover, conventional-till + no cover, no-till + vetch cover, and conventional-till + vetch cover in continuous cotton. These combinations of tillage + cover crop + soil depth imparted a range of organic matter and pH to the soil. Soil organic matter and pH ranged from 0.9 to 2.5% and from 4.7 to 6.5, respectively. Fluometuron adsorption was affected by soil depth, tillage, and cover crop. In surface soils (0 to 4 cm), fluometuron adsorption was greater in no-till + vetch plots than in conventional-tilled + no cover plots. Soil adsorption of fluometuron was positively correlated with organic matter content and cation exchange capacity. Fluometuron degradation was not affected by adsorption, and degradation empirically fit a first-order model. Soil organic matter content had no apparent effect on fluometuron degradation rate. Fluometuron degradation was more rapid at soil pH > 6 than at pH ≤ 5, indicating a potential shift in microbial activity or population due to lower soil pH. Fluometuron half-life ranged from 49 to 90 d. These data indicate that tillage and cover crop may affect soil dissipation of fluometuron by altering soil physical and chemical properties that affect fluometuron degrading microorganisms or bioavailability.

Evidence in the literature has generally supported either of two paraquat resistance mechanisms: an increase in activity of oxygen radical-scavenging enzymes in resistant plants which affords protection from active oxygen species formed by paraquat; and sequestration of paraquat away from its site of action in the chloroplast. Evidence for the first model relies primarily on measurement of increased enzyme activity and cross-resistance to other oxygen radical-generating stresses in resistant plants. The sequestration model is supported by data showing decreased translocation of paraquat and absence of paraquat injury in plant systems that do not have increased levels of protective enzymes. An alteration in paraquat transport at one of several plant cell membranes could confer resistance by modifying movement of paraquat into the compartment bounded by that membrane. Properties of the plasmalemma, chloroplast envelope, and tonoplast that may be important to paraquat transport are discussed and data supporting or discounting specific membrane alterations in resistant plants are presented. Finally, the possibility that both mechanisms may work in concert is addressed.

A field study was conducted in 1987 to 1991 to determine the effect of tillage and rainfall on distribution of atrazine in soil. Soil samples (10-cm increments to 50 cm) and crop residue samples were taken at regular intervals after application each year and analyzed for atrazine. Crop residue and living vegetation on no-till plots intercepted 60 to 70% of the applied atrazine; 3 to 16% of the atrazine remained in crop residue 1 to 2 wk later. The amount of atrazine recovered in soil, 1 to 2 wk posttreatment, ranged from 22 to 59 and 47 to 73% of the amount applied for no-till and conventional till, respectively. An average of 2.6 times more atrazine was recovered in the surface 10 cm of soil under conventional till than under no-till for all samplings and years. Total amounts of atrazine in the sampled profile (0- to 50-cm depth) were also generally lower under no-till than conventional till. More leaching below 10 cm occurred under no-till than conventional till, particularly in 1988 and 1990 when rain fell soon after application. Variation in soil atrazine levels among years was related to timing and amount of the first and subsequent rainfall after application.

A biotype of rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Gaudin biotype VLR69) resistant to some ALS inhibitors was characterized to determine the mechanisms of resistance to the sulfonylurea herbicides. The biotype had a high level of resistance to chlorsulfuron (20×) and triasulfuron (25×), and an intermediate level of resistance to imazaquin (7×) and sulfometuron (7.5×) but exhibited a low level of resistance to imazapyr (2.5×). At 60 to 90 g ai ha-1 sulfometuron, 4% of the population survived without apparent herbicidal effect The same response to sulfometuron was also observed when seeds of the resistant biotype VLR69 were germinated on agar containing sulfometuron. At 27 nM sulfometuron, 4% of the seeds germinated and grew normally while the growth of the bulk of the population was retarded. This differential response to sulfometuron at the seedling stage allowed selection of sulfometuron-resistant individuals from the population. Activity of ALS extracted from these sulfometuron-resistant plants was less sensitive to inhibition by chlorsulfuron than ALS extracted from plants considered sulfometuron susceptible in the same system. Unselected plants from the VLR69 population were able to detoxify chlorsulfuron more rapidly than susceptible VLR1 plants. It is apparent that there are at least two mechanisms of sulfonylurea resistance in the resistant biotype VLR69 which occur at different frequencies within the population. These data show that more than one mechanism or resistance may develop in response to herbicide selection pressure and that the resulting populations are not necessarily homogeneous.

Growth chamber research was conducted to compare the persistence of chlorimuron or imazaquin in soils from 11 locations in the southern United States at 25 C. Chlorimuron at 30 ng g-1 or imazaquin at 60 ng g-1 of soil was incorporated throughout each soil, and soils were watered to the water holding capacity and incubated in the dark. Soil samples were taken 0, 7, 14, 28, 60, and 90 d after treatment. Amount of chlorimuron or imazaquin remaining in each soil was quantified by sicklepod or corn root length bioassay, respectively. First order regression generally fit the concentration data for each herbicide. Bioactivity and persistence of chlorimuron in the soils was related primarily to soil organic matter content. Bioactivity and persistence of imazaquin was similar among the soils.

All actively metabolizing cells have an electrical potential difference, negative on the interior, across their membranes. This electrochemical potential gradient is generated primarily by proton-pumping ATPases and provides the driving force for the transport of various ionic and neutral solutes. It is a key element in the energy metabolism of cells. Such factors as alteration of transport processes, energy metabolism, cytoplasmic pH, and membrane permeability have a direct effect on the magnitude of the membrane potential. In a brief survey, diclofop-methyl, diclofop, hydroxydiclofop, CGA 82725, haloxyfop-methyl, haloxyfop, bentazon, dinoseb, 4-hydroxy CIPC, and 2-hydroxy CIPC caused rapid depolarizations of the membrane potential of oat coleoptiles. Chlorsulfuron, dimethipin, propham, CIPC, dicamba, alachlor, metolachlor, napthalic anhydride, and paraquat had no measurable effects. The depolarizing effects of diclofop-reported earlier are used to illustrate the methods and interpretation of plant cell membrane potential measurements. Diclofop and diclofop-methyl affect the membrane properties of sensitive plant cells. Diclofop irreversibly depolarized the membrane potential and increased the proton permeability of sensitive cells but not resistant cells. It also increased the ATPase activity of isolated membrane vesicles. The mechanism through which diclofop exerted its effect is not fully understood. The equipment and techniques required for the intercellular recording of membrane potentials and resistance are described as well as the limitations of the techniques. A method not used in herbicide studies but with great potential for studies of herbicide interactions with membranes is patch clamp. A brief introduction to the methods will be given.

Introduction of purple loosestrife into North America and its spread into wetlands has led to the degradation of these important habitats for wildlife. Conventional control efforts are unsuccessful in providing long-term control. A classical biological control program offers the best chance for reducing the numbers of this invasive plant and improving regeneration of the native flora and fauna. European studies demonstrated that the root boring weevil Hylobius transversovittatus is highly host specific to the target weed. Attack of two test plant species (winged lythrum and swamp loosestrife) during host range screening was most likely due to artificial test conditions. An environmental assessment of the potential effects of the release of the purple loosestrife borer in North America indicated that benefits outweigh any potential negative impact Therefore its field release was approved in 1992.

Aryloxyphenoxypropanoate (APP) herbicides, such as diclofop, depolarize membranes in parenchyma cells of coleoptiles and root tips, and isolated tonoplast or plasma membrane vesicles from a variety of plant species. Some APP-resistant biotypes of rigid ryegrass and wild oat repolarize membranes after removal of herbicide from a bathing medium. The repolarization ability does not require presence of either APP-insensitive acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase or an increased capacity for herbicide detoxification. The kinetics of depolarization and repolarization depend upon the herbicide, the herbicide concentration, the biotype, and the pH of the bathing solution. For rigid ryegrass, depolarization in the presence of diclofop acid is more rapid than in the presence of diclofop-methyl, and 50% depolarization required about 4 μM diclofop acid. Both the nonherbicidal S(–) and the herbicidal R(+) enantiomers of diclofop acid depolarized membranes in susceptible and resistant ryegrass. Susceptible biotypes regenerated transmembrane potentials following removal of the S(–) but not the R(+) enantiomer, whereas resistant biotypes repolarized following exposure to either enantiomer or a mixture of the two. The herbicide 2,4-D affected, in a complex manner, the ability of both susceptible and resistant ryegrass biotypes to depolarize and repolarize. It is postulated that the intracellular concentration of diclofop acid in susceptible and resistant plants is not the same due to differences in the partitioning of diclofop acid between the extracellular spaces and the cytoplasm. The mechanism producing the postulated difference is unknown, but observations on the proton extrusion capacity of both ryegrass and wild oats, the responses of ryegrass to [K+] and PCMBS, and the single-gene inheritance pattern of resistance in wild oats indicate that changes in the diclofop sensitivity of a plasma membrane protein involved in the generation of proton or ion gradients may be involved.

Many prime wetlands in North America have been degraded following encroachment by the exotic plant purple loosestrife. Conventional methods are unsuccessful in providing long-term control. Host specificity studies demonstrated the suitability of two leaf beetles, Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla, as biological weed control agents. Adults oviposited only on plants within the genus Lythrum. The only species other than purple loosestrife where adult feeding and oviposition occurred and that supported successful larval development was winged lythrum. Swamp loosestrife and winged lythrum may be vulnerable to limited attack by newly emerged teneral adults. Evaluation of the potential environmental impact of the two leaf beetles showed that benefits of an introduction outweigh potential risks to winged lythrum or swamp loosestrife. Their field release was approved in 1992.

Greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine if the inheritance of bentazon susceptibility in the corn inbred ‘GA209’ is a recessive single gene trait Bentazon was applied at 4.4 kg ai ha-1 plus 1% by vol crop oil concentrate in all experiments. This treatment caused 96 and 30% visual injury and 86 and 50% dry weight loss for corn inbreds GA209 and ‘Ky226,’ respectively. Corn inbreds ‘B73,’ ‘T61,’ Mo17,’ ‘Pa91,’ and ‘CI66’ showed less than 18% injury and 10% dry weight loss and were considered tolerant of bentazon. Single crosses and reciprocal single crosses of GA209 with the other inbreds were considered bentazon tolerant with approximately 10% stunting and tissue necrosis and 20% dry weight reduction resulting from bentazon. Bentazon susceptibility was not maternally inherited. Apparent single recessive gene control of bentazon susceptibility of GA209 was observed for F2 and backcross segregations. However, subsequent analyses of F3 and selfed-backcross populations indicated that two genes, probably located on the same chromosome, controlled the bentazon susceptibility. Duplicate dominant epistasis provided the best fit for injury and dry weight reduction segregations in populations derived from the cross of inbreds GA209 and B73.

Weed germination studies often quantify only radicle emergence to indicate germinated seeds. Four categories were used to investigate root and shoot emergence from germinating seeds including: root (seeds with radicles emerged); shoot (seeds with plumules or cotyledons emerged); complete (both roots and plumules emerged); and total (any emergence: roots, shoots, or both). Medusahead and yellow starthistle germination tests illustrated that emergence was equal in the root and total categories. Shoot and complete categories had identical counts, but those counts were often different from the total and root categories. Emergence of medusahead shoots at 8 C was 3 d later than roots, but at 18 C roots and shoots emerged nearly simultaneously. Yellow starthistle roots were not affected by picloram, but emergence of cotyledons (shoot category) was reduced by 80 %. Yellow starthistle seeds stored for 74 and 90 mo produced more radicles than cotyledons after 28 d at 28 C. Medusahead and yellow starthistle root emergence in the laboratory sometimes exceeded seedling emergence from a greenhouse soil mixture. The presence of both roots and shoots (complete category) was the most accurate criterion for documenting yellow starthistle and medusahead seed response to laboratory test conditions.

Geostatistical methods were used to describe and map nonrandom distribution and variation (standard deviation) of shoot density and root growth across a well-established patch of Canada thistle, a perennial weed. Semivariogram functions and kriging, an interpolation method, were used to prepare isoarithmic contour maps and associated error maps. Maps consisted of interpolated contours of uniform weed density and other measured or calculated regionalized variables between measured X-Y control points, as well as maps of error (standard deviation) associated with contour estimation. Mapped regions of greatest shoot density across a patch not only had the greatest underlying root biomass and, often, greatest density of adventitious root buds, but also had more deeply growing root biomass.

The aryloxyphenoxypropionate and cyclohexanedione herbicides, which inhibit acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (EC 6.4.1.2), have also been hypothesized to act at specific sites on the plasmalemma. An impermeant sulfhydryl binding agent was reported to block the diclofop acid-induced depolarization of the membrane potential (Em) in rigid ryegrass. A correlation between the antagonistic interaction with auxin herbicides both in the field and in the Em response, and the repolarization of Em in herbicide-resistant rigid ryegrass following removal of diclofop acid also provide support for this hypothesis. However, similar membrane responses in resistant grasses and broadleaf species suggest that the membrane response may not be important in the phytotoxic activity of the postemergence graminicides under field conditions. In addition, an antagonistic interaction was not observed in roots of susceptible grasses exposed to combinations of diclofop-methyl and 2,4-D. Furthermore, the repolarization of the Em in diclofop-resistant rigid ryegrass was correlated to differential acidification of the external solution and an increase in the protonated form of diclofop acid, rather than a site-specific interaction at the plasmalemma. Although the membrane response is probably not involved in herbicide phytotoxicity in agricultural systems, a higher extracellular pH in the resistant biotypes of rigid ryegrass may inhibit the movement of these weak-acid herbicides across the plasmalemma, and possibly contribute to increased herbicide tolerance.

The presence of wheat straw mulch in no-tillage systems can increase corn yields in the central Great Plains, but information is needed on the optimal mulch level and the toxicity of metolachlor on corn growth. Research was conducted to determine the effect of winter wheat straw mulch levels of 0, 1.7, 3.4, 5.1, and 6.8 t ha–1 and metolachlor rates of 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5X-rates on corn growth and yield in a winter wheat-ecofallow-corn-fallow rotation at three locations across Nebraska. Response of corn to different mulch levels and metolachlor rates varied with climate and location. In general, early corn growth was retarded by increasing amounts of mulch due to reduced soil temperatures, but after tasseling corn grew taller under increasing mulch levels because of increased soil moisture. Soil water content, kernel moisture at harvest, stover dry matter, total dry matter, ears per plant, and kernel weight increased with increasing mulch level. Corn grain yield reached a maximum at a mulch level of 5.1 t ha–1. Kernel weight, kernel number, and grain yield increased with higher mulch levels and 0.5 and 1.0X metolachlor rates as weed competition was reduced, but decreased at the 1.5X-rate of metolachlor due to corn injury. Lack of sufficient growing degree-days to compensate for lower soil temperatures or corn injury reduced corn yields at the higher mulch levels and 1.5X-rate of metolachlor in west-central and western Nebraska. From a practical standpoint, a mulch level of 3.4 to 5.1 t ha–1 and a metolachlor rate near the X-rate should increase corn yield (14 to 15%) over unmulched corn in the central Great Plains.

Greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate phytotoxicity, absorption, and translocation of thifensulfuron when applied to pea at different rates, droplet sizes, and as dry particles. Thifensulfuron rates that reduced shoot dry weight by 25% were 0.46, 0.59, 0.98, and 1.21 g ai ha-1 for droplet diameters of 110, 155, 300, and 450 μm, respectively. The 14C-thifensulfuron absorption as percent of applied increased twofold, whereas translocation decreased 36% as herbicide concentration increased from 18 to 146 mg L-1 in 980-μm droplets. Small droplets (50 μm) that dried to particles before contact with leaves did not damage pea plants. However, under dew conditions, dry particles damaged peas to a similar degree as liquid droplets. We concluded that small and concentrated droplets of thifensulfuron can damage peas more than large and diluted droplets as a result of increased herbicide absorption.

Bioassays using cell cultures and callus tissues of leafy spurge were devised to evaluate the potential of rhizobacteria as biocontrol agents. Rhizobacteria isolated from roots of leafy spurge seedlings were screened in suspension-cultured leafy spurge cells. Cell viability was assessed using the Evan's blue bioassay 48 h after bacterial inoculation. Among the 30 isolates tested, LS102 and LS105 consistently caused intensive cell death determined by measuring the A630 of the inoculated cell cultures. Cell death was 2.5 to 3 times higher in cultures inoculated with LS105 and LS102, respectively, than in the control. Population levels of the two isolates within cell cultures and callus tissues of leafy spurge increased during the first 48 h. Leafy spurge callus tissues were inoculated with rhizobacteria either directly or by using the Host Pathogen Interaction System (HPIS). The latter exposes calli to bacteria without any physical contact. LS102 caused cellular leakage and eventually death of the callus tissue. Callus growth was reduced by about 30 to 70% when exposed to LS102 and LS105, respectively. Results suggest that these two isolates may affect leafy spurge at the cellular level by different mechanisms. A screening method based on cell cultures and callus tissues offers a good and rapid technique for detecting deleterious rhizobacteria with potential as biocontrol agents for leafy spurge.

Cultures of Streptomyces tendae grown on Actinomyces medium containing clomazone contained less geosmin 48 h after inoculation than untreated controls, suggesting a possible inhibition of reactions prior to sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis. However, exposure to clomazone increased geosmin accumulation in S. tendae cultures grown on Hickey-Tresner medium and in cultures of the fungus Penicillium expansum. Additionally, clomazone increased accumulation of a sesquiterpenoid tentatively identified as a eudesmol in S. tendae, indicating possible point(s) of inhibition subsequent to sesquiterpenoid biosynthesis. Geosmin biosynthesis was induced by transferring cultures of S. tendae inoculated on Actinomyces medium to Hickey-Tresner medium 24 h after inoculation. When harvested at 48 h, geosmin biosynthesis-induced-cultures exposed to clomazone contained more geosmin than untreated controls, indicating that response of a single taxon to clomazone can be rapidly altered by changing medium composition.

Greenhouse and laboratory experiments were conducted to evaluate the influence of two organosilicone surfactants and spray nozzle types on the spray deposition, absorption, translocation, and efficacy of the monoethanolamine salt of clopyralid on honey mesquite. Sylgard 309 or Silwet L-77 added to the spray solution at 0.1, 025 and 0.5% by vol did not increase spray deposition, absorption, translocation, or phytotoxicity of clopyralid applied at 140 g ae ha-1 on honey mesquite compared to no surfactant An air-assist spray nozzle at 9.4 L ha-1 by vol resulted in greater initial clopyralid deposit on honey mesquite than hydraulic nozzles at 9.4 or 187 L ha-1 by vol, but air-assist application did not increase phytotoxicity compared to hydraulic nozzles.

In greenhouse tests, the host specificity of Alternaria crassa (Sacc.) Rands, a mycoherbicide for jimsonweed was altered by the addition of water-soluble filtrates of jimsonweed and hemp sesbania or fruit pectin to fungal conidia suspensions. Several crop and weed species that were resistant to the fungus alone exhibited various degrees of susceptibility following these amendments, with 100% mortality occurring to the weeds hemp sesbania, showy crotalaria, and eastern black nightshade when treated with the fungus/pectin mixture. Nonhost plants that were inoculated with conidial mixtures amended with sucrose or cellulose were not affected. Modification of host specificity of this pathogen could have an influence on its bioherbiddal potential