The susceptibility of corn (Zea mays L. ‘Pioneer 3334A’) at different stages of growth to EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) plus a herbicide-protectant, R-25788 (N,N-diallyl-2,2-dichloroacetamide), was studied in the greenhouse. Corn was treated with either 25 ppm or 12.5 ppm EPTC containing R-25788 at planting and at 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks thereafter. The herbicide was soil-applied and immediately incorporated by watering. Phytotoxicity and plant height were observed periodically for 56 days after herbicide treatment. Within 21 days after treatment with 25 ppm EPTC containing R-25788, injury and plant height reduction occurred in corn treated at planting, or at 2 and 4 weeks but not at 6 or 8 weeks after planting. At 56 days, however, corn treated at planting or 2 weeks after planting had outgrown all injury symptoms and was as tall as the controls (>84%). Corn treated at 4 weeks after planting, however, still remained injured and was 45% as tall as its respective control. Corn treated at 6 to 8 weeks showed no injury during the entire period of observations. The data indicates that corn is most susceptible to EPTC plus R-25788 at 4 weeks after planting. The results of this greenhouse study are discussed in relation to corn injury as observed in the field.

The influence of several environmental and edaphic factors on alachlor [2-chloro-2′,6′-diethyl-N-(methoxymethyl)acetanilide] selectivity in snap bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) was examined. Crop safety was consistently improved when alachlor was applied preplant incorporated as compared to surface preemergence treatment. Under field conditions, maximum injury occurred either when temperatures during germination were cool and rainfall was minimal, or when temperatures approached or exceeded 27 C and the soil was saturated. In the growth chamber, more damage occurred under low temperature regimes, although volatilization of alachlor from moist soil also produced injury under higher temperatures. Injury was less severe in soils high in organic matter content. Alachlor injury decreased after 5 cm of simulated rainfall were applied on a loamy sand.

Translocation of 14C-glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine] in johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] was examined in relation to time and illuminance. Plants were treated with 14 C-glyphosate and harvested 3 days and 6 days after treatment. Translocation increased significantly between the 3 day and 6 day harvest. The greatest accumulation of 14 C occurred in areas of meristematic growth. The concentration of 14C recovered in rhizomes nearly doubled between the 3 day and 6 day harvest. Plants harvested after 3 days of treatment in the dark translocated 1.3% of the applied 14C, while plants exposed to full light translocated 4.7%. Plants harvested after 6 days of treatment in the dark translocated 2.1% of the applied 14C, while plants exposed to full light translocated 5.8%. Translocation data indicated that movement of glyphosate in johnsongrass was via the phloem. Accumulation of 14C in roots and rhizomes was significantly greater in plants exposed to full light compared with plants exposed to either darkness or shade.

Multiple applications of atrazine [2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-triazine] during the winter, spring, and summer were evaluated for bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum F.) control in centipedegrass [Eremochloa ophiuroides (Munro) Hack.]. Single and repeated atrazine, metribuzin [4-amino-6-tert-butyl-3-(methylthio)-as-triazine-5(4H)-one], and methazole [2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-4-methyl-1,2,4-oxadiazolidine-3,5-dione] treatments were applied in the spring for common lespedeza [Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A. ‘Kobe’] control in centipedegrass. Atrazine at 2.2 kg/ha in two (July + August) or three (January + April + May, April + May + July, or May + July + August) applications controlled bahiagrass without injuring centipedegrass turf. In most instances repeated treatments were needed a second year for consistent control of 98 to 100%. A single treatment of atrazine at 2.2 kg/ha, metribuzin at 0.6 kg/ha, or methazole at 1.1 kg/ha satisfactorily controlled emerged common lespedeza in centipedegrass turf. None of the treatments injured centipedegrass. When atrazine was applied to actively growing centipedegrass, the turf had a darker green color than untreated turf. This usually occurred within a month after treatment and lasted for 3 to 4 weeks.

Herbicidal activity of foliar-applied oxyfluorfen [2-chloro-1-(3-ethoxy-4-nitrophenoxy)-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzene] was light dependent in buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. ‘Tokyo’). Plants were not injured when placed in the dark for as long as 4 days after herbicide treatment. When these plants were brought to the light, injury occurred, albeit more slowly than when plants were placed in the light immediately after treatment. The rate of injury increased as light intensity increased. The most effective wave length was 565 to 615 ηm, suggesting the involvement of a pigment with its absorption spectrum in this region. Chlorophyll content was not reduced by oxyfluorfen. Preliminary evidence suggests that photosynthesis was affected only after membrane integrity was disrupted.

Metriflufen {2-[4-(4-trifluoromethylphenoxy)phenoxy] propanoic acid} was applied as the methyl ester at 0.28 and 0.56 kg/ha over-the-top to johnsongrass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.] growing from rhizomes and to soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr. ‘Lee 68′]. After herbicide treatment, plants were grown in the growth chamber for 14 days at 16, 24, or 32 C with relative humidity (RH) at 40 or 100% at each air temperature. Johnsongrass was not controlled at 16 C regardless of metriflufen rate, RH, or the addition of nonoxynol [α-(p-nonylphenyl)-ω-hydroxypoly (oxyethylene)] (with 9.5 moles of polyoxyethylene) surfactant at 0.25 (g/100 ml) to spray solutions. Johnsongrass control at 24 C varied from 5 to 98%, with significantly better control at 100% than at 40% RH. The presence of surfactant increased johnsongrass control at 24 C and 40% RH but not at 24 C and 100% RH. Johnsongrass control at 32 C varied from 48 to 98%, and it was not increased by the presence of the surfactant, regardless of metriflufen rate or RH level. At 16 C metriflufen was more injurious to soybeans than to johnsongrass, but at 24 and 32 C johnsongrass control was significantly greater than soybean injury. The presence of surfactant in spray solutions generally did not increase soybean injury, regardless of temperature or RH level. These results suggest that metriflufen is most selective in controlling johnsongrass in soybeans at 24 C, especially under high RH.

Simazine [2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine] was applied annually at 4.5 kg/ha to uncultivated sandy loam of peach (Prunus persica Batsch) for 7 yr (orchard A) and 9 yr (orchard B). Simazine and the metabolite, hydroxysimazine [2-hydroxy-4,6-bis (ethylamino)-s-triazine] as determined by gas chromatography (GC) persisted for 40 and 28 months in soil of orchard A and B, respectively. However, no progressive accumulation of either compound in large quantities occurred from repeated annual applications of simazine to the orchard soils. No metabolites other than hydroxysimazine were detected. Hydroxysimazine was degraded more slowly than simazine and the residue levels of hydroxysimazine were at least 40 times those of simazine 40 months and 28 months after the final application in orchard A and B, respectively. Both simazine and hydroxysimazine residues were detected in the upper 30 cm of the soil profile.

Effects of seven herbicides and two herbicide formulations on the phytotoxicity of glyphosate {[N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine]} were studied in the greenhouse. All herbicide formulations tested reduced glyphosate toxicity; the degree of reduction among herbicides varied. Type of formulation did not alter the reducing effects of propazine [2-chloro-4,6-bis(isopropylamino)-s-triazine] or propachlor (2-chloro-N-isopropylacetanilide). Liquid formulations of cyanazine {2-[[4-chloro-6-(ethylamino)-s-triazin-2-yl] amino]-2-methylpropionitrile} and linuron [3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-methoxy-1-methylurea] caused less reduction than the wettable powder formulations, but the liquid formulation of atrazine [2-chloro-4-(ethylamino)-6-(isopropylamino)-s-triazine] caused greater reduction than the wettable powder. Inert ingredients of the herbicide formulations were primarily responsible for reduced glyphosate toxicity.

Postemergence applications of flufenprop-methyl [methyl-N-benzoyl-N (3-chloro-4-fluorophenyl)-2-amino-propionate] for wild oat (Avena fatua L.) control in spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), durum wheat (Triticum durum L.), and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) were evaluated in the field, greenhouse, and controlled environmental chambers. Wild oat control with flufenprop-methyl was greater at the five-leaf stage than three and one-half or two-leaf stage of growth. Wild oat control was not reduced when flufenprop-methyl was tank-mixed with bentazon [3-isopropyl-1H-2,1,3-benzothiadiazin-(4) 3H-one, 2,2-dioxide]. Tolerance of spring and durum wheat cultivars to flufenprop-methyl was acceptable; however, tolerance of barley cultivars was considerably more variable. Air temperature after treatment, soil fertility, and moisture did not influence wild oat control with flufenprop-methyl; however, a simulated rainfall of 1 mm within 1/2 h or 4 mm within 4 h after application reduced wild oat control.

A 2-yr field study was conducted to determine whether the addition of wetting agents to diclofop {2-[4-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) phenoxy] propanoic acid} could enhance its postemergence control of grass weeds without altering its crop tolerance. In each year, 12 species were treated at two stages of growth with at least two concentrations of diclofop. Regardless of the treatment, selectivity was not altered on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), or sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench]. The addition of wetting agent to diclofop was of no value on highly susceptible grass weed species such as barnyardgrass [Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) Beauv.] or on the more resistant species such as large crabgrass [Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop.]. Only on an intermediately susceptible species such as giant foxtail (Setaria faberi Herrm.) could any significant differences in control be attributed to a wetting agent. The stage of growth of the grass weed species at time of treatment and the diclofop concentration were more important than the presence of a nonionic wetting agent.

Four cropping systems were evaluated from 1975 to 1977 for the control of yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus L.). Crops grown in 1975 and 1976 included alfalfa (Medicago sativa L. ‘Elcamino WL-600′), barley (Hordeum vulgare L. ‘CM-67′), corn (Zea mays L. ‘Dekalb T214′), and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. ‘Acala SJ-2′). Herbicides used included butylate (S-ethyl diisobutylthiocarbamate) in corn, EPTC (S-ethyl dipropylthiocarbamate) in alfalfa, glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] in fallow plots, and MSMA (monosodium methanearsonate) in cotton. Cotton, which was grown continuously as one of the four cropping systems, was the only crop grown in 1977. Based on weed counts, crop yields, and the consistent decline in the number of tubers, all cropping systems provided substantial control of yellow nutsedge each year. Two years of either alfalfa treated with EPTC or double cropping barley with corn treated with butylate preceeding cotton reduced the number of viable yellow nutsedge tubers by 96%. Two years of chemically fallowing plots with glyphosate following barley and preceeding cotton was 98% effective in reducing viable tubers. Treating continuous cotton with MSMA, although somewhat inferior to the above systems, reduced the number of viable nutsedge tubers by 91% in 3 yr.

Field and greenhouse studies have shown that dinitroaniline herbicides suppress root rot of peas (Pisum sativum L.) caused by the fungus Aphanomyces euteiches Drechs. This investigation was conducted to identify factors which could enhance root rot suppression. In a temperature-soil moisture growth chamber study, dinitroaniline herbicides significantly reduced disease severity symptoms at all temperature and soil moisture regimes except 32 C and 0.75 field capacity. Dinitroaniline herbicides increased pea fresh weight significantly only under those conditions which favored severe disease development. Maximum root rot suppression occurred at 24 C and 1.25 field capacity. In a greenhouse study of the interaction of root rot suppression with pea varieties, dinitroaniline herbicides significantly increased growth of all 12 pea varieties tested including a root rot tolerant wild type of pea. A series of experiments explored the effect of uniformity, time, and depth of dinitroaniline herbicide incorporation on root rot suppression. In greenhouse studies, non-uniform incorporation significantly reduced root rot suppression indicating the need for thorough incorporation to achieve maximum root rot suppression. The combination of trifluralin (α,α,α-trifluoro-2,6-dinitro-N,N-dipropyl-p-toluidine) + oryzalin (3,5-dinitro-N4,N4 dipropylsulfanilamide) was more effective than either trifluralin or oryzalin alone under non-uniform incorporation conditions but not under uniform incorporation conditions. Field studies showed that herbicide incorporation 2 weeks prior to planting may improve pea yield by 1.12 kg/ha of trifluralin or 0.56 + 0.56 kg/ha of trifluralin + oryzalin but not by 0.56 kg/ha of trifluralin. Herbicide incorporation to 15.2 cm rather than the normal 7.6 cm, increased pea yield at the 1.12 kg/ha rate of trifluralin or oryzalin or at 0.56 + 0.56 kg/ha of trifluralin + oryzalin. At the 0.56 kg/ha rate of trifluralin or oryzalin, herbicide dilution offset any benefit from deeper soil incorporation.

The activity of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine], formulated as the isopropylamine salt, on in vitro photosynthesis was investigated. When pH 4.7 glyphosate solutions were titrated to a pH equal to that of the reaction media (pH 7.8), glyphosate additions had no effect on whole chain electron transport between coupled photosystem II (PS II) and photosystem I (PS I) in stroma-free chloroplast thylakoids from peas (Pisum sativum L. ‘Morse's Progress No. 9′). Inhibition did not occur even after a 2-h dark incubation of lamellae in a 5-mM solution of glyphosate. Fluorescence studies failed to detect an effect of glyphosate on PS-II mediated electron transport processes or upon light harvesting properties of PS II even after a 2-h glyphosate/chloroplast preincubation. Glyphosate had no effect on cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation even after a 100-min dark incubation of chloroplast membranes in a 5-mM solution of glyphosate. Based on these assays it is concluded that glyphosate has no direct effect on the photochemical reactions of photosynthesis when the pH of the active compound is adjusted to that of the reaction mixture prior to addition to a chloroplast suspension.

A phenetic classification of 44 ecotypes of common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) produced 4 major groups: cool temperate; warm temperate to wet dry subtropic; humid subtropic to tropic; and cultivated. These groups were based on 36 plant characteristics; the ecotypes were collected from 18 countries and are representative of climates inhabited by common purslane. The cultivated group is comprised of robust forms which are raised for culinary purposes. For weed forms, plants of the cool temperate group were small, prostrate plants with size and growth habit increasing to maximum in the humid subtropic to tropic group.

The purpose of the paper is to permit the calculation of prospective costs before starting the biological control of a weed. The cost of the Canadian program from its start in 1950 to the end of 1976 was tabulated in scientist-years by target weed, agent, and the type of study done. This information and international data on the number of agents required to control a weed were used to calculate expected costs. A complete biological control program is likely to cost 18.8–23.7 scientist-years or currently $1.2 to 1.5 million and thus is only economic for use against major weeds. However, it is often possible to capitalize on studies done elsewhere, and under these circumstances biological control may be economic for solving more minor weed problems.

This study describes separate methods for injecting growth retardants into herbaceous and woody plants. Bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. ‘Black Valentine’) were treated by injecting growth retardant solutions into the hypocotyl cavity with a syringe. The chemical was subsequently absorbed into the vascular system. Woody California privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk.) was injected by forcing chemical solution into the vascular system via a predrilled hole. Results with NAA (1-napthalene-acetic acid) and MH (1,2-dihydro-3,6-pyridazinedione) validated the methods by inhibiting growth, respectively. New growth regulators, mefluidide {N-[2,4-dimethyl-5-[[(trifluoromethyl) sulfonyl]amino]phenyl]acetamide} and dikegulac (sodium salt of 2,3: 4,6-bis-O-(1-methylethylidene-α-L-xylo-2-hexulofuranosonic acid], inhibited the growth of bean with concentrations of 60 mg/L and 480 mg/L, respectively. Sprout growth of privet was inhibited by 30 mg/L of mefluidide and by 188 mg/L dikegulac.

The effect of glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] on carbon dioxide. (CO2) levels, ethylene production, and cellulase activity was investigated. Production of ethylene increased within 12 h and CO2 increased within 24 h when 12-day-old bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. ‘Red Kidney’) were treated with 20 mM isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. The CO2 cycled for 3 days and then increased around treated plants. Specific activity of cellulase was increased in debladed bean seedlings that had been pretreated with 20 mM isopropylamine salt of glyphosate. Cellulase enhancement was detected 2 days after the pretreated plants were debladed. Glyphosate-enhanced ethylene production may have increased the cellulase activity.