Determining the germination speed is essential in experiments in the field of seed technology, as it allows the performance evaluation of a seed lot and the creation of predictive models. To this end, the literature addresses several methods and indexes. The objective of this study was to compare the main methods of emergence speed analysis in seeds, namely the non-linear regression models and the Emergence Speed Index (ESI), with the time-to-event models. The research was conducted with peach palm seeds (Bactris gasipaes) that were measured for viability and vigour through daily evaluations for 4 months. Vigour was evaluated by the quantification of the seed emergence speed, which was performed in three ways: ESI, non-linear regression and non-linear regression considering germination as a time-to-event event. From the results obtained, we conclude that the ESI is not a good indicator to evaluate the emergence speed; the non-linear regression model underestimates the errors and, thus, increases the probability of misclassifying treatments; the time-to-event model is more reliable in classifying treatments according to the emergence speed.

Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) induced by the absence of seed dormancy causes a severe reduction in crop yield and flour quality. In this study, we isolated and characterized TaABI4, an ABA-responsive transcription factor that participates in regulating seed germination in wheat. Sequence analysis revealed that TaABI4 has three homologues, located on chromosomes 1A/1B/1D. TaABI4 contains a conserved AP2 domain, and AP2-associated, LRP and potential PEST motifs. Putative cis-acting regulatory elements (CE1-like box, W-box, ABRE elements and RY elements) were identified in the TaABI4 promoter region that showed high conservation in 17 wheat cultivars and wheat-related species. Expression profiling of TaABI4 indicated that it is a seed-specific gene accumulating during the middle stages of seed development. Transcript accumulation of TaABI4 in wheat cultivar Chuanmai 32 (CM32, PHS susceptible) was 5.07-fold and 1.39-fold higher than that in synthetic hexaploidy wheat SHW-L1 (PHS resistant) at 15 and 20 DPA, respectively. Six expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) of TaABI4 on chromosomes 2A, 2D, 3B and 4A were characterized based on the accumulated transcripts of TaABI4 in SHW-L1 and CM32-derived recombinant inbred lines. These QTLs explained 10.7 to 46.1% of the trait variation with 4.53–10.59 of LOD scores, which contain genes that may affect the expression of TaABI4.

The Cerrado is a Neotropical savanna where grasses are a major biomass component in the open vegetation physiognomies. Invasive grasses are widely used as pastures in the Cerrado, and their presence may displace native species. The persistence of native grasses relies also on reproduction via seeds, which is often dependent on seeds found buried in the soil seed bank. The literature about the effects of light availability on the germination of Neotropical savanna grasses is scarce, and germination may lead to abnormal seedlings that develop only the root or the shoot. Germination trials that overlook this fact may overestimate the potential for seedling recruitment. Therefore, we tested the effects of light availability on the germination of nine native and two invasive grasses, addressing the production of normal seedlings. Seeds were germinated in the complete absence or the presence of light (12 h photoperiod under white light) for 30 days. Germination was defined as the sum of normal and abnormal seedlings. Eight species were light-dependent, decreasing the production of normal seedlings in the dark. Two native and one invasive species were non-responsive to the dark treatment, showing no change in germination or production of normal seedlings. Our results suggest that seeds buried in the soil seed bank are likely to show reduced germination and develop abnormal seedlings, reinforcing a bottleneck for the recruitment of native grasses. For invasive species, however, the potential of seedling recruitment was minimally reduced by light, suggesting a competitive advantage for the recruitment of these species.

Seed priming with water (hydropriming or HP) has been shown to be beneficial for seed germination and plant growth. However, there is little information on the effects of seed priming with amino acids and casein hydrolysate (CH) compared with HP, particularly in relation to early post-germinative seedling growth under salinity stress. In this study, Italian ryegrass seeds (Lolium multiflorum L.) were primed with 1 mM of each of the 20 protein amino acids and CH (200 mg l−1) before they were germinated in 0, 60 and 90 mM NaCl in Petri dishes for 4 d in darkness. Germination percentage (GP), radicle length (RL) and peroxidase (POD) activity in the root of 4-d-old Italian ryegrass seedlings were investigated. Generally, when the seeds were germinated in 0, 60 and 90 mM NaCl, there was no significant difference in GP of seeds among various priming treatments, except that a higher GP was observed in seeds of HP treatment compared with the non-primed seeds when incubated in 60 mM NaCl. When incubated in 60 and 90 mM NaCl, seedlings from seeds primed with L-methionine or CH exhibited greater RL (greater protection against salinity stress) and higher root POD activity than those from non-primed and hydro-primed seeds. Under salinity stress, there were higher levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) in the root of 4-d-old Italian ryegrass seedlings, a marker of oxidative stress, but seed priming with CH was effective in reducing the salinity-triggered increase in MDA content. These results suggest that priming with L-methionine or CH would be better than HP for the protection of seedling root growth under salinity stress and might be associated with enhanced antioxidative defence against salinity-induced oxidative stress.

Martin placed the lateral embryo, which occurs only in grasses, adjacent to the broad embryo at the base of his family tree of seed phylogeny. Since Poales and Poaceae are derived monocots, we questioned the evolutionary relationship between the lateral embryo and other kinds of monocot embryos. Information was compiled on embryo and seed characteristics for the various families of monocots, kind of embryogenesis for families in Poales and germination morphology of families with lateral (only Poaceae) and broad embryos. The kinds of monocot embryos are broad, capitate, lateral, linear fully developed, linear underdeveloped and undifferentiated, but only broad and lateral embryos are restricted to Poales. Asterad embryogenesis occurs in Poaceae with a lateral embryo and in Eriocaulaceae, Rapataceae and Xyridaceae with a broad embryo. In developing grass seeds, the growing scutellum (cotyledon) pushes the coleoptile, mesocotyl and coleorhiza to the side. In the organless broad embryo, the cotyledonary sector is larger than the epicotyledonary sector. During germination of grass seeds, the coleorhiza and then the coleoptile emerge, while in a seed with a broad embryo the elongating cotyledon pushes the epicotyledonary sector outside the seed, after which a root–shoot axis is differentiated at a right angle to the cotyledon inside the seed. Broad and lateral embryos are closely related; however, the lateral embryo is more advanced in seed/embryo traits and germination morphology than the other kinds of monocot embryos, suggesting that its position on the family tree of seed phylogeny should be higher than of the other monocot embryos.

Serotiny is a strategy in which the retention of mature seeds in parent structures allows plants to cope with environmental variability like heat, drought or fire. Although this phenomenon might be common in Cactaceae, and particularly in Melocactus, it has generally been scarcely addressed. The main goal of our work is to investigate if there are seeds hidden in the cephalium of Melocactus matanzanus and if there are, determine whether or not these seeds maintain their viability. We also discuss some advantages the cephalium may offer as diaspore after the death of individuals. Cephalia collected from dead individuals were divided into four slices and their seeds counted; we also assessed the viability and photoblastic response of the seeds by using growth chambers at 25/30°C, and by a cut test on the seeds that did not germinate. Our results showed retention of viable seeds of different ages in all slices of the cephalium. Seeds were photoblastic positive with germination between 11–22% and viability above 50% in the portion of the lots that did not germinate.

Seed germination is regulated by temperature and can thus be quantified by thermal models, which can predict germination occurrence in biomes and plant survival under possible climate change scenarios. The objective of this study was to quantify germination based on thermal time and survival risk of 14 species in the Brazilian Cerrado in scenarios of future climate change. Seeds were collected in the warmer regions of the Cerrado, central Brazil, placed in incubators to germinate at constant temperatures of 10–50°C and evaluated every hour or day. Germination rate (R50), time for germination of 50% of the seeds (T50) and dent-like function were used to determine cardinal temperatures. Thermal time parameters were estimated using the Weibull model. Seed germination forecasts were made based on the International Panel on Climatic Change (IPCC) scenarios of global temperature increase. Base temperatures (Tb) ranged from 3.5 to 16.5°C, maximum temperatures (Tmax) from 35 to 50°C and optimum temperatures (To) from 30 to 35°C. Estimated thermal time varied from 484°C h to 400°C d at sub-optimal temperatures and 108°C h at 126°C d at supra-optimal temperatures. Species more distributed showed a higher thermal range of germination and are less susceptible to extinction in temperature increase scenarios. The results of this study suggest that seeds that are non-dormant after dispersal may be the most vulnerable in the future. In this context, our predictions contribute to understand how the survival of trees and shrubs will be affected in the Cerrado in the future.

Flavonoids are a group of phenolic secondary metabolites in plants that have important physiological, ecological and economic value. In this study, using the desert plant Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch. as the sample material, the content and components of the total flavonoids in its seeds at seven different developmental stages were determined. In addition, the genes involved in flavonoid metabolism were identified by full-length transcriptome sequencing (third-generation sequencing technology based on PacBio RS II). Their expression levels were analysed by RNA-seq short reading sequencing, to reveal the patterns and regulation mechanisms of flavonoid accumulation during seed development. The key results were as follows: the content of total flavonoids in mature seeds was 15.05 mg g−1, including five subclasses: flavonols, chalcones, flavones, flavanones and proanthocyanidins, among which flavonols accounted for 45.78%. The period of rapid accumulation of flavonoids was 40–70 d following anthesis. The high expression of phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), 4-coumarate-CoA ligase (4CL) and UDP-glucose:flavonoids 3-o-glucosyltransferase (UF3GT) promoted the accumulation of total flavonoids, while the high expression of flavonoids 3′-hydroxylase (F3′H) and flavonols synthase (FLS) made flavanols the main component. Transcription factors such as the MYB-bHLH-WDR (MBW) complex and Selenium-binding protein (SBP) directly regulated the structural genes of flavonoid metabolism, while C2H2-type zinc finger (C2H2), Zinc-finger transcription factor (GATA), Dehydration-responsive element binding (DREB), Global Transcription factor Group E protein (GTE), Trihelix DNA-binding factors (Trihelix) and Phytochrome-interacting factor (PIF) indirectly promoted the synthesis of flavonoids through hormones such as brassinoidsteroids (BRs) and abscisic acid (ABA). These results provided valuable resources for the application of related genes in genetics and breeding.

During soybean seed germination, the expansive growth potential of the embryonic axes is driven by water uptake while cell wall loosening occurs in cells from the elongation zone (EZ). Expansins are regarded as primary promoters of cell wall remodelling in all plant expansion processes, with the expression profiles of the soybean expansins supporting their cell or tissue specificity. Therefore, we used embryonic axes isolated from whole seed and focused on the EZ to study seed germination. Using a suite of degenerate primers, we amplified an abundantly expressed expansin gene at the EZ during soybean embryonic axis germination, which was identified as EXP1 by in silico analyses. Expression studies showed that EXP1 was induced under germination conditions in distilled water and down-regulated by abscisic acid (ABA), which inhibits soybean germination by physiologically restraining expansion. Moreover, we also identified a time window of ABA responsiveness within the first 6 h of incubation in water, after which ABA lost control of both EXP1 expression and embryonic axis germination, thus confirming the early role of EXP1 in the EZ during this process. By contrast, EXP1 levels in the EZ increased even when germination was impaired by osmotically limiting the water availability required to develop the embryonic axes’ growth potential. We propose that these higher EXP1 levels are involved in the fast germination of soybean embryonic axes as soon as water availability is re-established. Taken together, our results show strong EXP1 expression in the EZ and postulate EXP1 as a target candidate for soybean seed germination control.

Tomato seeds subjected to osmo-priming show fast and more uniform germination. However, osmo-priming reduces seed longevity, which is a complex seed physiological attribute influenced by several mechanisms, including response to stress. Thus, to have new insights as to why osmo-primed tomato seeds show a short life span, we performed a transcript analysis during their priming. For that, we performed gene expression studies of the heat-shock protein family genes that were previously reported to be associated with the enhancement of longevity in primed tomato seeds. Physiological assays of germination, vigour and longevity tests were used to support the data. The results show that the short life span of osmo-primed tomato seeds is related to the decrease in the expression of transcripts associated with response to stress during the priming treatment. These results are important because they add information regarding which seed longevity mechanisms are impacted by the priming treatment. In parallel, it will allow the use of these genes as markers to monitor longevity in osmo-primed tomato seeds.

Cadellia pentastylis (Surianaceae) is an Australian endemic threatened rainforest tree. Irregular flowering and fruiting events coupled with high rates of infertility and insect predation has meant that seed testing has not been possible for this species. Seeds were opportunistically collected from a wild population in early 2021, which allowed for the first germination tests to be conducted. In this study, the presence of physical dormancy was examined by performing an imbibition test using scarified and non-scarified seeds. We also investigated whether a 5-min heat shock treatment at temperatures ranging from 60 to 120°C improved germination success. The presence of physiological dormancy was also examined by recording germination success following a gibberellic acid or smoke-water pre-treatment. Both scarified and non-scarified seeds readily imbibed water over a 72-h period, and several seeds had germinated in both treatments after 48 h. Final germination proportion and t50 following a heat shock, gibberellic acid or smoke-water pre-treatment did not significantly differ from the controls. We conclude that C. pentastylis seeds are non-dormant. Although a palisade cell layer has been reported in the endocarp, our results suggest that this layer may not be sufficiently formed to restrict germination. We recommend that seeds are collected from populations following dispersal and propagated shortly after or stored as conservation collections in ex situ Seedbanks.

Seeds of Papilionoideae (Leguminosae) species lose water after dispersal, increasing the proportion of water-impermeable seeds (physical dormancy, PY). However, changes in testa structure during this process remain unknown. The present study investigated how variation in relative humidity (RH) during the post-dispersion period affects the proportion of seeds of Erythrina speciosa with PY. Seeds from two populations were stored in drier (40% RH) and wetter (80% RH) environments and periodically subjected to physiological analysis (seed water content, imbibition and germination) and structural analysis of the testa (light and scanning electron microscopy). Drier storage resulted in seed dehydration, increasing the proportion of water-impermeable seeds and closure of cracks in the mucilaginous stratum. In contrast, wetter storage led to an increase in seed water content, a decrease in the proportion of seeds with PY, and the formation of cracks. As a result of variation in environmental humidity, we conclude that changes occur in the mucilaginous stratum of seeds, altering water loss and, consequently, the proportion of seeds with PY. Environments with low humidity cause a decrease in seed water content, the closing of cracks in the mucilaginous stratum, and, consequently, an increase in the proportion of water-impermeable seeds. On the other hand, a high RH environment increases the seed water content and the formation of superficial cracks, through which water enters during imbibition, causing a decrease in the proportion of seeds with PY.

Endophytic microbiomes play a beneficial role in the development and protection of plants. However, seed-borne endophytic bacteria have not yet been fully explored. Investigation of parasitic plants, whose existence depends on yet poorly understood and complicated relationships with microorganisms and hosts, is particularly crucial. Endophytic bacteria promote seed conservation and facilitate seed germination in soil. Several root holoparasites from the Orobanchaceae family are the most aggressive broomrape species, often causing serious yield losses in important crops. Parasitic plants are characterized by the production of a large number of some of the smallest seeds in the world's flora, allowing them to stay viable in the soil for several dozen years. This study's aim was to isolate and characterize the seed endophyte and surface bacteria of the most aggressive and widespread broomrape weed, Phelipanche ramosa. We isolated two endophytic bacteria from within the seeds which are closely related to Brevibacterium frigoritolerans and Bacillus simplex described as soil bacteria, highly resistant to environmental conditions, and as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria. Moreover, we isolated three strains from the surface of non-sterile seeds; all three isolates were related to the Bacillus cereus group.

Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) shows variable levels of seed physiological dormancy (PD), which depends on the genotype and environmental condition during seed development. To analyse the effect of field temperature and precipitation during seed filling on the PD, two cultivars were sown on five dates in 2014 and 2015. After harvest, the level of seed PD was 4–28%. High-temperature stress (>29°C) in the field during seed development, measured as heat stress units (HSUs), reduced seed PD (increased germination) at harvest. After 9 months of dry afterripening under laboratory conditions, mean dormant seed values were reduced from 15 ± 8 to 8 ± 7%. An increment in the seed PD level reduced seedling emergence in the field. Seed with 20% PD produced only 50% of field emergence, under optimal environmental conditions. Different vigour tests were conducted and each was compared with field emergence. The speed of germination, through the first count at 5 d of the standard germination test, and the shoot length at 10 d were better associated with the seedling establishment in the field. The HSU could be useful to establish a possible PD range in the seed of perennial ryegrass after the growing season. The development of models considering the HSU and other climatic parameters could motivate future studies.

The plant allelochemical coumarin effectively inhibits the germination of Brassica parachinensis (B. parachinensis) seeds. Quantification of endogenous phytohormones showed that contents of abscisic acid (ABA), ABA glucose ester, gibberellin A20 (GA20), GA3, GA15, GA24, GA9 and GA4 were higher in germinating seeds than in seedlings. Moreover, the presence of coumarin significantly reduced the content of bioactive GA4 which is thought to positively regulate seed germination. Histochemical staining and spectrophotometry of reactive oxygen species (ROS) revealed that exogenous GA3 and GA4+7 could effectively promote the production of endogenous ROS during germination and that the GA synthesis inhibitor paclobutrazol could effectively inhibit production of ROS. Coumarin significantly inhibited the accumulation of ROS, especially superoxide anion radical (${\rm O}_2^{{\cdot}{-}} $). This inhibitory effect could be restored by the addition of exogenous GA3 and GA4+7. Coumarin also inhibited the activity of the ROS-degrading enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and peroxidase as well as β-amylase in seeds and seedlings. Taken together, we propose a model for the regulation of seed germination in B. parachinensis by coumarin, Gas and ROS, in which coumarin may delay seed germination by reducing endogenous GA4, thus decreasing the accumulation of ROS.

The regulation of plasma membrane H+-ATPase was considered in imbibing Vicia faba seeds, a distinctive feature of which is germination by cell elongation, whereas the mitotic activity starts later. The enzyme activation is known to precede germination because it provides H+ ion efflux from the cytoplasm to cell walls which favours their modification and loosening, being the prerequisites of cell elongation commencement. The presence of an enzyme in imbibing embryo axes was confirmed immunochemically. H+ ion efflux was recorded with a pH-meter as acidification of ambient solution by the embryonic axes for 5 min. The activation of the enzyme and its subsequent activity are regulated in different ways. Enzyme activation is hydration-driven, it starts when water content increases up to the threshold level of 55% (fresh weight basis). This value was confirmed by imbibition in the presence of the osmoticum polyethylene glycol 6000, at various osmotic potentials. The activation does not depend on indolylacetic or abscisic acid treatment. Hydration-triggered activation of the enzyme favours rapid seed germination and its correspondence to the soil water potential. Enzyme activity after its activation is inhibited by 60–70% by 10−5–10−7 M abscisic acid, whereas indolylacetic acid exerted no effect. The regulation of plasma membrane H+-ATPase activity is presumably accomplished by the interaction of the enzyme with 14-3-3 proteins and endogenous fusicoccin, present in imbibing axes.

Viburnum is a temperate-zone genus that also occurs in mountains of South America and Malesia, and seeds of many species have morphophysiological dormancy (MPD). Information on the level of MPD in seeds of species in various clades of Viburnum potentially would increase our understanding of the evolutionary relationships between the nine levels of MPD. Our aim was to determine the level of MPD in seeds of Viburnum plicatum var. formosanum that is endemic to mountains (1800–3000 m a.s.l.) in Taiwan and a member of the Lutescentia clade. The temperature requirements for embryo growth and root and shoot emergence and response of seeds to gibberellic acid (GA) were determined. No fresh seeds germinated during 16 weeks of incubation at 15/5, 20/10, 25/15, 30/20 or 25°C. Embryo growth and root emergence occurred during moist cold stratification at 5°C or at a temperature sequence of 15/5 to 5°C. During cold stratification, embryos length increased from 0.76 ± 0.06 to 3.40 ± 0.26 mm and the embryo length:seed length ratio from 0.20 ± 0.02 to 0.68 ± 0.07. In a temperature sequence simulating field conditions, embryos grew inside seeds at 5°C, roots emerged at 15/5°C and shoots emerged at 20/10°C. The optimum temperature for embryo growth was 5°C. Neither GA3 nor GA4 was effective in promoting root emergence. We conclude that seeds of V. plicatum var. formosanum have deep complex MPD, which is a first report for Viburnum. Dormancy release during the cool season at high elevations helps to ensure that seeds germinate at the beginning of the warm season.

Phelipanche ramosa is a major weed holoparasite characterized by a broad host range with a suboptimal development on numerous hosts, suggesting inter- or intra-species specificities. Seeds of P. ramosa germinate after exposure to exogenous chemicals exuded by surrounding host roots such as strigolactones, the concentrations of these germination stimulants varying between hosts. In France, P. ramosa is characterized by genetically differentiated populations presenting varying germination rates and a host specificity. The objective of our study was to investigate the sensitivity of seeds of two P. ramosa populations harvested on tobacco and oilseed rape, to a set of GR24 concentrations, a synthetic strigol analogue. The assessment of the germination rate was based on in vitro experiments. Seeds of P. ramosa were placed in Petri dishes with various concentrations of GR24. The cumulative number of germinated seeds of P. ramosa was counted several times after application of the treatment. Cumulative germination curves were analysed using a three-parameter log-logistic model and a time-to-event approach. The results show that the germination rate of P. ramosa seeds depends on the GR24 concentration and the duration of stimulation, but also that the response to these two factors varies greatly according to the origin of the P. ramosa seeds. The difference in germination speed between P. ramosa populations further shows distinct responses at the intraspecific level, thus suggesting that the specialization of P. ramosa probably occurs at least from the first stage of the holoparasite cycle.