The radiologic impact of 14C produced by the nuclear fuel cycle is assessed at both global and local levels. In the former context, it is predicted here that the specific activity of atmospheric CO2 in the year 2050 will be ca 7.6 pCig-1 C. Although this is similar to the present level, the subsequent collective dose commitment could be highly significant.

The enhancement of 14C concentrations around the nuclear fuel-reprocessing plant at Sellafield (Windscale) in Cumbria, U K has been monitored over recent years. For example, maximum levels of 27.2 pCig-1C (∼350% above natural) during 1984 were observed < 1 km from the plant, with enhanced activities detectable to at least 29km. Nevertheless, it is clear that the radiologic significance to the local population is low. The spatial distribution of the excess 14C allows atmospheric dispersion models to be tested in the context of continuous releases and the results thus far show that the Gaussian plume model performs successfully.

Measurements of 14C activity of atmospheric CO2, vegetables, and tree rings in the area of the 632 MWe power plant Krško in Slovenia, NW Yugoslavia, have been in progress since January, 1984. Sampling stations are located in the area ca 400km2 and are distributed in the direction of the prevailing westerly winds. The closest sampling point is 1.5km NE of the plant exhaust stack, the farthest sampling point is 30km E of the plant. A sampling site at National Park Plitvice in central Croatia was chosen as the 14C reference point not affected by the power plant.

An average excess of 2.2% above the reference point activity during normal periods of reactor operation was observed 1.5km from the plant smokestack. Calculations of the 14C release from the power plant was estimated at 0.1 TBq/a. The tree ring activity near the plant followed the 14C activity of the Northern Hemisphere in the past decade. No influence of the power plant release was observed on the tree ring activity.

We have been measuring concentration of atmospheric CO2 and its carbon isotope composition in the Kraków region for about two years. Samples are continuously collected at two-week intervals at ca 20m above ground level, close to the center of the industrialized urban area. Sampled atmospheric CO2 is sorbed in a molecular sieve and, after recovery by heating, is converted to benzene. 14C is measured in a liquid scintillation spectrometer, and δ13C of the CO2 is determined in a mass spectrometer. The annual record shows winter-summer variation of 14C, 13C, and CO2 concentration. A long-term trend for 1983 and 1984 indicates a slight decrease of 14C activity (1 22.0 in January 1983; − 1.2% per year), a permanent decrease of δ13CPDB (−9.3‰ in January 1983; −0.3% per year) and an increase of CO2 concentration (344 ppm in January 1983; 1.4ppm per year).

The study of a regional Suess effect is based on three sets of samples of atmospheric CO2: 1) a series of samples collected at the same site in Gliwice from 1980 to 1984, 2) samples collected simultaneously at different sites within the limits of an urban and industrial region of Upper Silesia, and 3) samples collected simultaneously outside this region along an eastern direction. Results of 14C concentration measurements show systematic decrease of Δ14C with the rate close to the corresponding value for clean air. Depletion of 14C concentration was found to be virtually the same in the whole urban area. Analysis of regional synoptic data reveals correlation of individual Δ14C values with wind direction, frequency of calm, and vertical stability of the atmosphere.

In this study the origin of the carbonaceous fraction of total suspended particles (TSP) in air was analyzed. While the summer data show increasing carbon concentrations in the Los Angeles air basin from west to east, in the winter high levels of carbon particles can be found over the coast. The smallest and most dangerous particle fraction is principally composed of fossil carbon.

14C is one of the most important anthropogenic radionuclides released to the environment by human activities. Weapon testing raised the 14C concentration in the atmosphere and biosphere to +100% above the natural level. This excess of atmospheric C at present decreases with a half-life of ca 7 years. Recently, a new source of artificially produced 14C in nuclear reactors has become important. Since 1967, the Bratislava 14C laboratory has been measuring 14C in atmospheric 14CO2 and in a variety of biospheric samples in densely populated areas and in areas close to nuclear power plants. We have been able to identify a heavy-water reactor and the pressurized water reactors as sources of anthropogenic 14C. 14C concentrations show typical seasonal variations. These data are supported by measurements of 3H and 85Kr in the same locations. Results of calculations of future levels of anthropogenic 14C in the environment due to increasing nuclear reactor installations are presented.

Changing fuel patterns and increased awareness of health effects from combustion aerosols have generated considerable interest in the use of 14C as a biogenic-fossil aerosol source discriminator. Prior studies in the US demonstrated the importance of 14C measurement for estimating the wood-burning contribution to urban aerosols. The present work treats a specific air-pollution problem in the town of Elverum, Norway where large wintertime concentrations of aerosol carbon and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were suspected to come from residential wood combustion (RWC). The problem was significant in that up to 50/μg/m3[C] and 490ng/m3[PAH] were found during pollution episodes. Samples collected during two winters were analyzed for 14C, C, PAH, and several elements in the fine fraction (<3μm) aerosol. Source apportionment based on these species indicated an average of ca 65% RWC-carbon (14C), ca 5% fine particle mass from motor vehicles (Pb), but negligible contributions from heavy fuel oil (Ni, V). Patterns of 14C and total C, examined as a function of temperature and PAH, indicated large increases in RWC aerosol on the coldest days, and a major RWC contribution to the PAH fraction. Patterns with inorganic species implied multiple tracer sources, and one important case of long-range transport.

The paper describes a study undertaken to examine the dispersion pattern of gaseous emissions, as indicated by 14C uptake in natural materials, around the nuclear reprocessing plant at Sellafield, Cumbria, UK. The extent and directional dispersion of the released 14C is established and its variability over an extended period assessed. Results of measurements taken during three sampling seasons (1981, 1982, 1983) of the 14C activity in hawthorn berries collected over a wide area are presented and the dispersion pattern contours constructed from them are examined. Only limited agreement of the results with the theoretical relationship 1/r is found and both meteorology and topography are seen to be important in determining the shape of the observed patterns.

Recent studies comparing dates from the carbon content of mortars with dendrochronologic dates for the same material have shown considerable inconsistencies related to mortar type (Van Strydonck et al, 1985). Even after the best possible removal of “dead” calcite, some mortars are unsuitable for dating. We describe here our experimental study of carbon isotope fractionation during the manufacture and hardening of mortars. Preliminary experiments established overall uptake of CO2 from the air. We then measured isotopic ratios in identical mortars at different hardening times.

The usefulness of radiocarbon dates in archaeology greatly depends on both the stratigraphic relationship of the sample submitted and on the origin and homogeneity of the measured carbon. For very small samples, stratigraphic relationships can raise additional problems of movement. In chemically well-characterized materials, the best example being collagen, the carbon source can be reasonably well purified. Many samples, however, survive as a complex mixture of high molecular weight polyphenolic materials, with properties between charcoals, humic acids, and lignins. Charred bone, eg, which rarely contains useful quantities of amino acids, and charred seeds, as well as ‘charcoal,’ frequently come into this category. For such samples, the likelihood of contamination by percolating soil humics is high. It is often possible to extract chemically different fractions and to compare the dates obtained. A less exact comparison can also be made for different samples from the same context. The results suggest that ‘humic’ acid dates can be reliable in a surprisingly frequent number of situations, and that where direct comparison is possible, the reliability can be individually assessed.

The influence of the aggregate in mortar dating is examined. Sample activity as well as isotopic fractionation approach the expected values at lower yields of the preparation reaction of the counting gas. Good results are obtained at low fossil carbonate concentration. δ13C cannot give information about this concentration but preliminary visual and chemical analysis of the mortar makes prediction of sample validity possible.

The general reliability of 14C dating in archaeology induced us to try to extend the method to other datable materials that may be uncovered, even those which have till now been neglected or considered unreliable. Improvements in AMS techniques will also help us date very small samples or those with low carbon content. For these reasons we have undertaken a systematic study of the application of 14C dating to potsherds which are usually abundant in prehistoric sites and often more representative of human activity than other materials such as charcoal (Evin, 1983).

Sherds can be dated by four independent methods: 14C beta counting on associated material, accelerator mass spectrometry on carbon traces on and within the sherd, thermoluminescence studies on minerals within the sherd, and stylistic form. Age analyses of materials and sherds from several sites are shown in this work. Each technique has its own frequently encountered non-laboratory sources of error. A combination of at least two independent techniques is indispensable for the highest level of confidence.

An attempt is presented to establish an absolute chronology of early Slavonic habitation in the region of the mouth of the Odra River up to the Baltic and to find associations with a series of stave boats and dugouts of different levels of technology and navigation. The methodology of the research project is presented and some conclusions of a general nature are drawn from the results already obtained.

This paper will deal with two major points: 1) the lack of feedback between archaeologists supplying samples and using radiocarbon dating, and physicists carrying out 14C dating measurements; and 2) the problem of calibrating groups of 14C dates in a statistically meaningful way.

Palynologic and archaeologic studies using 14C dating indicate that elements of farming were introduced even further north than the Arctic Circle during the Neolithic period, ca 4000 BP. A second stage with heavier reliance on farming and with probable establishment of permanent farmsteads is dated to 2000–2500 BP.

Evidence of a tradition of human maritime adaptation was recovered from various sites at Beagle Channel dating back to ca 6000 yr BP. Final occupations date to European settlement in the 19th century. The Túnel site exhibits discontinuous human occupation ranging from 6000 to 500 yr BP, represented by different archaeologic remains in each layer. Associated charcoal, mollusk shells, and Lama guanicoe and Arctocephalus australis bones were dated. Shells and Arctocephalus are consistently older than charcoal, demonstrating the reservoir effect at Beagle Channel. Results encourage further work in the area to evaluate the spatial and temporal magnitude of the effect.

The relationship between 13C content of human bone and the marine fraction in the individual diet is well established. In the present investigation human skeletons from inland and coastal areas in Norway were analyzed. Both regional and chronologic differences are revealed, and larger variability than expected at specific sites indicate more complex cultural adaptations than earlier recognized. Extremely high δ13C values, comparable with those obtained from Eskimo sites, are found for material from Early Stone Age fishing/hunting communities.

A new radiocarbon sample record form has been compiled for consensus among radiocarbon daters and users. The form is designed to obtain comprehensive standardized documentation of radiocarbon dates for reporting and disseminating valuable data. This method of reporting 14C dates will help resolve problems which include: 1) publication of all dated samples, 2) selection of significant samples, 3) interpretation of data, 4) recognition of problematic dates, 5) maintenance of an active archive of 14C dates, and 6) implementation of an international retrieval system for dates.

The development of a Thesaurus of Radiocarbon Dating and Related Terms was undertaken to provide a basic common vocabulary of terms for the purpose of indexing an Annotated Bibliography of Radiocarbon Dating (1948–68) and form the basis of a language for information storage and retrieval in 14C dating and related term areas. The interdisciplinary nature of 14C dating dictates that selected terms have meanings in the context of archaeology, geology, earth sciences, oceanography, and environmental sciences, to name but a few, as well as chemistry and nuclear instrumentation on which the technique of 14C determinations is based. This paper describes the method used for selection of terms and explains the structure of the proposed thesaurus. A limited edition Draft Thesaurus was distributed to a selected panel of colleagues for critical evaluation.