The long history of discharge of industrial and domestic waste to the Forth makes the area of particular interest to environmental scientists. The area has been studied both in its own right for the monitoring and control of contamination by trace metals and organohalogen compounds, and in the study of processes which influence the dispersion and effects of these substances. This paper discusses the inputs of contaminants to the area, their occurrence in the water, sediments and biota, and places the Forth in context with other coastal areas of Scotland. The paucity of information concerning organohalogen compounds is contrasted with the extensive work carried out on trace metals.

The adoption of emerging biotechnological methods in plant breeding is presented discussing specifically the relevance of cell genetics to potato improvement. The finding and use of efficient anther plant producing strains of potato (EAPP clones) is first discussed. This is followed by the presentation of recent progress toward the obtaining of diploid potato strains producing a high percentage of monohaploids from anthers. The selection of homozygous diploid regenerants (potato ‘pure lines’) by using an RFLP approach is also presented. A summary chart is presented, containing the description of an integrated breeding procedure that may be considered for future breeding of this species.

The Clyde Estuary is recovering from gross pollution inherited from the age of the Industrial Revolution.It is necessary now to establish the degree of recovery and determine any subsequent effects of future planning consents. Documentation on water quality was subjective until the 1960's when quantitative studies on pollution levels commenced.

Much attention has been paid to dissolved oxygen (DO) levels in the estuary. The changes in the DO regime over the last ten years have been quantified with the help of multiple regression techniques. The use of these techniques in establishing the changes resulting from improvements to Dalmarnock and Paisley sewage treatment works is described. Deterministic models, based on the diffusion-convection equation, have been used to predict future DO conditions. The theoretical base of these models is outlined and examples are given of the use of the models in predicting the effects of possible developments on the estuary.

Biological monitoring has also been utilised to assess estuarine recovery. Benthic data has been accumulated since 1967. Regular surveys highlight improvements in species richness, diversity and stability. Spatial and temporal population variation was investigated and the salinity tolerances of the species considered. Fish life is increasing and is now present for much of the year, although salmon are still excluded from the upper Clyde system. The lower estuary remains an important overwintering feeding ground for wader populations.

Current research into viral monoclonal antibodies is reviewed in the light of their use or potential use as diagnostic reagents. Special attention is paid to influenza, the adenovirus group, herpes virus hominis types 1 and 2, rota viruses, hepatitis and cytomegalovirus. Although monoclonal antibodies have many advantages, particularly as regards specificity, purity, reproducibility, homogeneity and availability in unlimited supplies, certain problems are inherent in their very nature. Their preciseness may in fact be a hindrance to their use in diagnosis necessitating their recombination in pools and the quality assessment of their reactions with their homologous 'wild" types presents large logistic problems. There is no doubt that a powerful new serological tool has become available but their large-scale diagnostic use may be a little premature.

The Firth of Forth, in terms of physical oceanography, is part of the North Sea. The general circulation pattern in the firth must be regarded as largely speculative. There have been insufficient measurements of insufficient quality, and what evidence exists leads to the view that what circulation there is, is sluggish and varies from season to season and from year to year.

A description is given of the three principal mechanisms that contribute to circulation. Tides, due initially to astronomical forces, manifest themselves in the Firth of Forth through the rise and fall of the adjacent open sea. This rise and fall, periodic in mid ocean, is no longer strictly so in the firth and neither are the tidal currents. The wind-driven currents in the sea are influenced by the earth's rotation. In the Firth of Forth, some of this influence is retained. Naturally, wind-driven currents are larger near the surface. Finally, when water of different densities meets, overturning causes convection currents. All of these effects are present to some extent in the Firth of Forth. In addition, specific account has to be taken of complicated coastal and bottom topography and river outflow. Some attempt to bring together these effects and available measurements is made in this paper. Lastly, several theoretical models are proposed which account for the magnitudes and directions of the observed steady circulation. Mathematical details are given in appendices.

Human skin propionibacteria have been shown to produce, in vitro, a wide range of inhibitory substances including bacteriocins, bacteriolytic enzymes, bacteriophages and low molecular weight metabolites (e.g. ammonia, propionic acid). Some or all of these substances may play a role in the ecology of cutaneous populations of micro-organisms and may be involved in maintaining the balance of the normal flora. There is no evidence to suggest that they deter or exclude other transient bacteria including pathogens. Similarly, evidence in support of the in vivo production of growth inhibitors by propionibacteria with activity against other skin micro-organisms is lacking (except for bacteriophage and propionic acid) so that their potential role in controlling cutaneous populations must be interpreted with caution.

For a full decade, the Office of Naval Research (ONR) led the United States into the development of science by research contract. Marine geophysics and oceanography were a part of this, as were the solid earth sciences and meteorology.

By 1950, ONR was firmly established, World War II seemed far behind, and oceanographers in the United States were enthusiastically looking forward to what turned out to be ten years of their most productive work. By combining oceanographic talent and ONR funds and logistics, there was created one of the most effective systems yet invented for accomplishing science and technology at sea.

New institutions were established, old institutions revived, fleets were designed, deep diving initiated, ocean monitoring begun, Arctic oceanography started, expeditions mounted, and discoveries made which, when coupled with other knowledge, were to contribute to far-reaching consequences for the earth sciences and how we now view our geophysically active planet.

The oceanographers will speak for themselves. This paper presents only the view from Washington at the time, and how at least some of the activity there helped to make possible the Great Decade of Oceanographic Development, 1950–59.

When one has spent—or mis-spent—substantial fractions of many years in gathering materials for a study and has eventually seen the results published in book form one is strongly conscious of a need to forget; at the very least there is a wish not to live in repetitious ways. An ancient Arab proverb, possibly relevant here, runs something like this: the word you have spoken is your master; the word you have not spoken is your slave. And so it is with my book The Gift Relationship which I sub-titled From Human Blood to Social Policy.

Venoms are complex mixtures of many different components, whereas a toxin is a single pure compound whose activity can be specified. Toxins often have novel, highly specific activities. Studies on toxins open the way to design therapeutically useful molecules based on the structural information obtained from the toxins.

An example of successful drug development from a component of a snake venom is that of the inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE). The first ACE inhibitors were developed from work on peptides isolated from the Brazilian arrowhead viper Bothrops jaracusa that prolonged the action of bradykinin. The venom components blocked the enzyme that inactivated bradykinin; the same enzyme activated the precursor of the vasoconstrictor hormone angiotensin. Hence, a valuable new type of therapy was established by developing the leads provided by the natural toxin.

Dendrotoxins are small proteins from mamba venoms that block rapidly activating K+ channels in neurones. There are possibilities that dendrotoxin could be the basis for drug design. A small analogue that mimicked the activity of dendrotoxin in the central nervous system might boost the activity of certain neuronal pathways. Potentially, such a compound might be able to restore some of the function of systems damaged by progressive neurodegenerative diseases. Although dendrotoxin-like compounds would not be a cure for these diseases, they may provide temporary relief from symptoms.

Conversely, compounds with the specificity of dendrotoxin but with ability to activate K+ channels, rather than block them, may be a novel way of reducing abnormal electrical activity in the brain. Hence, they may form the basis of a new type of anticonvulsant drug for epilepsies.

Recent work at Strathclyde has concentrated on defining the structure-activity relationships of the naturally occurring dendrotoxins and on synthesising small analogues of the postulated ‘active site’. Preliminary results are encouraging, and it is hoped to go from green mamba venom to dendrotoxin to therapeutically useful drugs.

During a study of the micro-structure of keratin fibres (Stoves, 1944) it was found that certain members of the Mustelidæ, e.g. kolinsky (M. Sibirica), ermine (M. erminœ), and Jap mink (M. itatsi), possess primary hairs with well-developed cuticle, cortex, and medulla. In the case of rabbits and hares (Leporidæ), however, the corresponding fibres are composed almost entirely of medulla cells. The two types of fibres, therefore, provide suitable material for studying the chemical reactivity of the keratin constituting cuticle, cortex, and medulla of animal hair. Accordingly, the effect of various reagents upon transverse sections of fibres from the above-mentioned animals was examined, and a preliminary report of the results has already been made (Stoves, 1943 a). A more detailed account of the work now appears.

According to Borst (1913) each individual should be regarded as a specific biochemical system, and within this common background the different organs and tissues work together whilst preserving their own characteristics. On such a foundation, strengthened by the results of his own extensive experiments, Loeb (1930,1945) has built up his conception of the biological basis of individuality. According to his thesis the individuality of a tissue is a summation and integration of qualities in respect of its identity as a particular tissue or organ, in respect of the organism of which it is a part, and in respect of the species and order of this organism. The autograft is attuned to the biochemical system of the organism and is therefore accepted as a transplant, but the host reacts to the homograft (and more so to the heterograft) and makes an effort to destroy it. While the extent of the host reaction depends on many factors—e.g. genetical relationship, age of host and donor, etc.—the ability of different organs and tissues to survive as homografts varies considerably. It is, for example, well known that homografts of cartilage and cornea survive within the host long after homografts of other tissues and organs have been destroyed.

To regard the more prolonged survival of homografts of cartilage and cornea as evidence of low tissue specificity (Loeb, 1930, 1945) still leaves undetermined the real reason why these particular tissues are less readily overwhelmed by those of the host.

Regular moulting can prevent colonisation of the skin surface by epibionts, although some invading organisms are sufficiently mobile to overcome this protective device. Bacteria and sessile protozoans settle on the surface of the claws of Xenopus, where the keratinised cells are not shed as regularly as on the skin. Alternatively, parasites may inhabit the orifices, which also are not affected by moulting.

A standard nigrosin-eosin staining method in current use has been said to differentiate between live (unstained) and dead (stained) spermatozoa. In the present work, the method is applied to rabbit semen. The general results are comparable with those already obtained in the larger domestic animals. The effects of several technical and biological factors on staining capacity are evaluated, and the validity of the method is examined experimentally. Some statistical aspects are presented. The percentage of stained spermatozoa varies widely between rabbit males. To a large extent, any particular male preserves a characteristic percentage from one ejaculate to another. The percentage of stained spermatozoa is inversely related to the fertility of males as measured by the birth rate after natural mating.

Concurrently, an investigation was made of the incidence of a class of morphologically abnormal spermatozoa seen in the preparations. The classifications of spermatozoa by morphology and by staining capacity are highly correlated. For assessing semen quality, the morphological classification is considered to be as useful as the classification by staining capacity, and perhaps more useful.

Nigrosin-eosin staining of rabbit spermatozoa is discussed; firstly, in comparison with other animals and in relation to sources of variation; secondly, as a means of differentiating between live and dead spermatozoa; thirdly, as a means of assessing the fertility of semen; and fourthly, in relation to the alternative classification of spermatozoa by abnormal morphology.

The coastal zone is being seen increasingly as a major resource requiring the planning of its use to accommodate the many and frequently conflicting demands placed upon it. In the U.K. this planning is complicated by the difficulties arising from the scale, map projection and quality of information provided by the different mapping agencies. These difficulties are compounded because the representation of information concerning the littoral is quickly outdated by the dynamic coastal processes operating in this zone. This paper presents the results of an investigation of the use of digital remote sensing and mapping techniques, using data from a set of LANDSAT MSS scenes corresponding to different tidal states, for mapping within the coastal zone where regular and possibly cyclic map revision is required.

Margaret Deacon (1971) has given us a very comprehensive account of the development of marine science from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century and, since Edinburgh was a focal point in the nineteenth century, it would be superfluous and presumptuous of me to endeavour to repeat what she has done. Furthermore, so much has been written about the Challenger Expedition which was nurtured in Edinburgh that again it seems quite unnecessary to repeat in any detail the story of that major milestone in the development of the subject. The specialist has the 50 volumes of scientific reports of the expedition to refer to, while, of the numerous popular accounts Eric Linklater's book (1972) is agreeable reading.

Sitka spruce is a monoecious, wind-pollinated, cross-fertilising species showing wide genetic variation which suggests heterozygosity for many alleles and natural selection against self-fertilisation. Phenotypic selection for the important trait of vigour is ineffective, so testing progenies of selected individuals and clonal testing is an essential and time-consuming part of any improvement programme. Old trees can be vegetatively propagated by grafting and very young trees by rooted cuttings.

The British tree improvement programme is based, in the short term, on the use of seed collected from superior plantation trees of desirable origins; in the mid term on seed derived from clonal orchards based on mixtures of clones previously tested for superiority in family tests; and in the longer term on highly superior seed or clones derived from a system of recurrent mating with family selection. Three populations are being developed. There is a small interspecific hybridisation programme.

In studying the literature relating to that little-known prosimian, the Angwántibo—with a view to incorporating the main facts known about it in a comprehensive work on primate anatomy at present in preparation—I had occasion to consult the original description of the species by J. A. Smith (1860). I there discovered that the type was a spirit specimen (an “adult” male) which was received in Edinburgh, along with a second male, from Old Calabar. There is some confusion in the literature as to the fate of these specimens and this should, I think, be cleared up. Both specimens were procured in 1859 by Rev. A. Robb, one being sent, indirectly, to Smith and the other to Andrew Murray. Smith recognized in his specimen something new and accordingly described it as a new species of Potto, placing it in Bennett's genus Perodicticus as P. calabarensis. He gave an assurance of his intention of depositing the type in the Natural History Museum of the University of Edinburgh, but later sent it to his friend Carruthers at the British Museum for comparison with Bennett's type of Perodicticus potto. Some useful observations were made upon it by Carruthers and incorporated as an addendum to Smith's paper. The specimen was evidently returned to Edinburgh and found its way to the University, but in 1860 it was transferred, with other material, to the Edinburgh Industrial Museum (since 1904 the Royal Scottish Museum).

With the kind assistance of Professor J. Ritchie I have succeeded in tracing it, and with the permission of Dr D. A. Allan, Director of the Museum, and the helpful co-operation of Dr A. C. Stephen, Keeper of Natural History, I have had the privilege of studying it.

The cutaneous reactions induced in the skin of human volunteers by protein A from Staphylococcus aureus have been studied. This cell wall protein induces no response when applied in solution to intact skin. In contrast a vigorous inflammatory reaction is seen if it is injected intradermally or applied to skin from which the stratum corneum has been partially removed. This study demonstrates that the intact epidermis is an important protection against this microbial product.

Coprophilous fungi form an easily recognised ecological group adapted to severe disturbance. They survive as spores on herbage and are ingested, chewed, subjected to digestion, exposed to competition within the gut, egested and then suffer further competition and environmental variation. Studying the ecology of fungi on rabbit dung has several advantages, both for research and teaching. These include ready availability, ease of replication, simple techniques for varying the environment and levels of competition, and the possibility of adding spores to sterilised food. This is illustrated by studies on three aspects of the ecology of coprophilous fungi.

Accurate quantitative assessment of the benefits accruing from the genetic improvement of crops is difficult. Crop yield increases are achieved through the introduction of new, improved varieties, through improvements in cultural practices and as a consequence of interactions that occur between new varieties, cultural practices and environmental conditions. Part of the yield increases from new varieties is as a consequence of genetic plant resistance to pests and diseases. Plant breeding, which is dependent on there being available a wide relevant genetic base for each crop, has also provided considerable improvements in quality, as well as improving adaptability to a wider range of environments.

In the developed world estimated annual yield increases from the genetic improvement of crops, especially cereals, are of the order of 1–2%. Examples are given from a number of crops of hybrid varieties, of varieties with improved quality and of varieties that are genetically resistant to pests and diseases to illustrate that conventional plant breeding, allied to multi-disciplinary, strategic research, has been very effective, both economically and in protecting the environment.