Spruce plants (one clone of Picea abies (L.) Karst.) were exposed in environmental chambers to different levels of ozone for 42 days to study the influences of enhanced ozone on root tip chromosomes directly after fumigation had ceased. No visible symptoms resulted from these treatments. The classification of chromosomal aberrations was used as a method to characterise the influences on the root tips caused by ozone. In comparison to the control the fumigated variant showed an increased number of chromosomal abnormalities. Another clone of Picea was used to investigate the ‘post-fumigation long-term effect’ in the genetic material caused by enhanced ozone. These clonal trees appeared to be relatively ozone-sensitive, as pigment reduction and chlorotic spots were observed directly after fumigation had ceased. The spruce trees were also exposed in environmental chambers to different levels of ozone for 24 weeks and then they were transferred to a field near the Institute. Some 21 months after the fumigation had ceased those trees that had been fumigated showed an increased number of chromosomal aberrations compared with the control.

The observed chromosomal abnormalities in all the variants of the experiments consisted of chromosomal ‘stickiness’, chromosome breakage, and fragmentation.

The visit of Commander Perry's American fleet in 1853, followed by visits of European oceanographic research vessels, initiated Japanese interest in oceanography. Fortunately, because of a long maritime history and experience, such advanced sciences were speedily and easily absorbed in Japan. The U.S.S. Tuscarora (1874) discovered the Tuscarora Trough in the Japan Trench during her trans-Pacific sounding cruise as a preliminary to laying a submarine cable. During her epoch-making scientific expedition around the world (1872–76) the British Challenger visited Japan in 1875 and surveyed parts of the Inland Sea. This was followed by the Swedish Vega Expedition (1879) which first cruised across the Arctic Ocean to Tokyo, the Russian Vitiaz Expedition (1886–89) in the Japan Sea, etc., and the USA Albatross Expedition (1888–97) in the northern waters and Japan Sea.

When the Royal Society of Edinburgh was founded, the art of beer brewing had already been practised for well ov,er five thousand years, initially in Mesopotamia, then in Egypt and, for the last two millennia, in Continental Europe and in Britain. The procedures used were —and still are —essentially simple. First, barley is malted by growing the grain to allow it to form an assortment of enzymes, some of which, particularly the proteinases and β-glucanases, gradually free the starch granules of the endosperm from their enclosing organic matrix. The enzyme-amylase is also synthesised during malting and, though it has a limited action on the starch in the intact grain, it assumes major importance later during mashing. As a result of the enzymic activity during malting, the endosperm becomes friable instead of tough and the germinated barley, now known as malt, is kiln-dried so that it can be safely stored.

The world's oceans continue to play a vital part in man's history on this planet. There is no doubt that in the long process of evolution man's early ancestors left the sea for the land. There is evidence too that some of these having progressed to the mammal stage returned to the sea to produce the dolphins, whales and seals. Some biologists believe that man's predecessors did likewise. Being driven by a shortage of food, they ventured into the shallow coastal waters to collect shell fish and other accessible sea food. During this period they lost much of their fur and learnt to swim. Unlike the aquatic mammals, they remained land animals. It must also be assumed that primitive man developed a great fear of the sea which remained with him even after he had developed the use of boats. Its storms, its vastness, its tides and its currents must have filled him with awe. Even in modern times seafaring occupations are considered hazardous pursuits and drowning as a cause of death is greatly dreaded. In the simple man's mind the dark ocean depths with unpredictable moods of violence create a sense of fear subconsciously supported by the fact that the newly born human being emerges from the dark and watery confines of the womb wherein it has, in its development, recapitulated the pattern of man's evolution. To return to explore the sea would be to retreat into the timeless past. It is not surprising, therefore, that extensive exploration of the sea and sea bed has lagged behind the extension of man's activity over the great land masses, the conquest of the highest mountains, the development of flight and in later years the conquest of space.

Sand dunes occur extensively around the coastline of Great Britain and in a wide variety of forms. Management for nature conservation is influenced by a long-term historical perspective which has led to a continued policy of protection. It has aimed firstly to prevent damaging developments such as building and orestry, and secondly to control excessive erosion brought about predominantly by man's own activities. However, an assessment of current nature conservation management problems suggests that at many sites in Great Britain over-stabilisation may be as much a problem as erosion. The implications for management in the face of other competing demands is discussed.

An account is given of the benthic harpacticoid copepods of a medium grade subtidal sand at a depth of 8–5 m (below chart datum) off the Ayrshire coast at Hunterston. It is the first account of seasonal changes in subtidal harpacticoids in the Firth of Clyde.

Most of the population is restricted to the top 1 cm layer of sand and this is considered to be related to food availability. There were considerable variations in total densities with largest numbers occurring in late June, as seawater temperatures increased rapidly towards the summer maxima.

Two species examined in detail, Asellopsis hispida and Harpacticus flexus each had one distinct period of reproduction during the year. Gravid females appeared first during the coldest months (January and February) followed by large numbers of copepodites from late April to June, culminating in large numbers of adults in June. Adult males clasped female stages only in May and June, after the main period of egg production. It is thought that viable sperm is carried by the adult females for about six to seven months, supposedly until the next period of egg production the following year. Adults of Harpacticus flexus are thought to be an important source of food for juvenile and small fish, particularly during July.

The magmatism early in the Tertiary period resulted in (1) eruption of extensive plateau lavas (Skye, Small Isles, Mull) and of Central-Group lavas (Mull, central Arran), and (2) emplacement of central intrusion complexes (Skye, Rhum, Mull, Blackstones Bank, Arran), of sill complexes (northern Skye, Shiant Isles, western Mull, southern Arran) and of dyke swarms (almost all of the Inner Hebrides) focused on the central intrusion complexes. Each of these magmatic stages and the rock types formed are described, with particular emphasis on the central intrusion complexes and the fact that the centres about which intrusion occurred shifted with time. Some of the causes of compositional variation among rock types are briefly discussed. Most of the magmatism occurred between 61 and 58 million years ago when rifting and separation of eastern Greenland and north-western Europe was initiated.

The herring population inhabiting the Firth of Clyde has supported an important fishery for hundreds of years. The basis for this fishery was until recently a stock of spring-spawning herring which spawn on Ballantrae Bank in the period February-April and which was investigated intensively by means of larval surveys from 1958 to 1979, when it had decreased to a very low level. In the late 1960s there was evidence of a change in the composition of the landings and during the 1970s and in the present decade the majority of fish caught have been of autumn-spawned origin. There is no evidence of significant autumn-spawning in the Firth of Clyde and autumn-spawning herring in advanced stages of maturation appear to leave the Clyde, returning by the time the fishery opens the following spring.

The spawning origin of autumn-spawned herring in the Clyde has been investigated by tagging experiments, and recaptures have been made in the Irish Sea, off the northwest Irish coast and further north along the west coast of Scotland. However the spawning area of the majority of the fish is unknown.

The herring fisheries in the Clyde, originally carried out by ring-net and anchored drift-net but now mainly by pair-trawl, have been managed by closed seasons and in the past few years by total allowable catch regulations under the control of the European Community.

There is also a population of sprats in the Firth of Clyde which supports a small fishery and spawning of this species takes place earlier in the Clyde than elsewhere around Scotland. Mackerel also make annual incursions into the Clyde and support a small summer fishery. Factors affecting the abundance of pelagic fish species in the Clyde are discussed.

The epidemiological approach to the investigation of breast cancer is briefly described with special reference to case-control and cohort studies. Risk factors for breast cancer are then reviewed, paying particular attention to menstrual and reproductive factors and to body weight. Some of the hypotheses which attempt to draw the epidemiological observations together are also outlined.

The effects of exposure to exogenous oestrogens are considered in more detail. There is evidence from one study that the administration of large doses of stilboestrol during pregnancy increases breast cancer risk after a latent interval of about twenty years. Conjugated equine oestrogens administered to postmenopausal women may also slightly increase breast cancer risk after prolonged use. Little information is available about the effects of any other type of “hormone replacement therapy”. Combined oral contraceptives do not appear to have any general effect on breast cancer risk, but prolonged early use, especially use before first term pregnancy, may be harmful to the breast.

The major rock types which comprise the Outer Hebrides are described and the geological history of the region is discussed. The control exercised by the variations in structure and lithology on the topography is illustrated and an assessment made of the economic potential of the various rock units.

The variability of the pubescent birch and the probable existence of hybrids between it and two other birches make it a difficult species to classify at an infraspecific level. To some extent, the variation is geographical and to cover its distribution, three subspecies are proposed by the authors of Flora Europaea, sspp. pubescens, carpatica and tortuosa. Two subspecies are recognized in Britain, namely ssp. pubescens and ssp. odorata, but some confusion has arisen through the undetermined relationships between sspp. odorata, carpatica and tortuosa. The rejection of ssp. odorata is proposed as its application, in this case, differs from that intended by J. M. Bechstein, the original authority. An examination of the literature indicates that ssp. tortuosa and ssp. carpatica are probably indistinguishable (a conclusion supported by multivariate analysis) and that the epithet tortuosa can be applied to both taxa. The pubescent birch in the Scottish Highlands may be referred to ssp. tortuosa and, in addition, the high frequency of small-leafed individuals in some populations in the northwest and at higher altitudes, justifies the further distinction of var. microphylla Hartman.

Fishing with both a shore seine net and a small otter trawl in the summer of 1943 and the spring of 1944 showed that the native fish population was very sparse. No estimate of the size of fish population was attempted in 1944. Estimates undertaken in 1945 and 1946 will be discussed later (p. 120). Fishing in the period June to September 1945 produced small numbers of fish tabulated on p. 110, and some plaice and flounders which will be dealt with separately.

In addition there were fairly large numbers of gobies, sticklebacks, pipe fish and sand eels which, however, were not usually recorded in our catches. Shoals of young herring appeared only in the summer and autumn of 1945.

Maps are shown to be the most striking way of displaying the distribution of marine species on a geographical scale. They have been used to indicate not only the presence or absence of a species, but also its abundance. A single map only records the distribution pattern at a particular moment in time, but repeated mapping clearly demonstrates temporal fluctuations. Many ecological insights have been derived from distribution maps especially when they are compared with records of environmental factors such as substratum type, current velocity or temperature. Moreover maps actually stimulate experimental work which seeks to explain the distribution patterns displayed.

Electroencephalography has added another important means of investigation of cerebral activity and functioning to the many others previously at our disposal. In applying it, as with the other investigative methods, it is important that we should have clearly in mind exactly what facts it is able to demonstrate and what interpretations we are justified in making of the observed facts. This process of interpretation is difficult partly because it is a two-stage one; the electrical potentials observed are those on the surface of the scalp and these must first be referred back to potential sources (i.e. electrical charges) in the brain itself. These latter must then be interpreted in terms of activities of nerve cells and nerve fibres. The first of these two stages belongs entirely to the sphere of mathematical physics, and the present paper is an attempt to present a working hypothesis which not only suggests a solution of this stage of the problem, but suggests a probable solution of the second stage. The second stage properly belongs to the sphere of physiology, but progress here is rendered difficult by lack of decisive knowledge as to the nature of the elementary unit of central nervous activity.

A wide variety of normal and malignant mammalian cells, as well as inflammatory cells, release extracellular active oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. Both these species at low levels can stimulate growth and growth responses in a range of normal and malignant cell types. In order to assess the significance of such findings, superoxide dismutase and catalase were added exogenously to the culture medium of hamster (BHK-21) and rat (208F) fibroblasts (non-transformed or oncogene transformed). This resulted in a reduction of cell proliferation and increased cellular uptake of trypan blue stain, suggesting that superoxide and/or hydrogen peroxide may have important roles as extracellular ‘messengers’ promoting cell proliferation and maintaining cell viability. Superoxide dismutase mimics, like superoxide dismutase itself, are also cytostatic towards these cells and provide a basis for the development of tumour-specific antiproliferative drugs.

Ectoparasites of poultry in the United Kingdom are reviewed. Mention is made of poultry ectoparasites occurring in other parts of the world and of some ectoparasites of British birds. In south west Scotland ectoparasite infestations appear to have decreased following the intensification of the poultry industry. Occasional outbreaks of Dermanyssus gallinae, the red mite and Ceratophyllus gallinae, the hen flea have occurred in modern poultry units. Cases of louse infestation with Menacanthus stramineus have also been observed from farmyard chickens and bantams. The damage caused by ectoparasites and their role in disease transmission is discussed.

Skin diseases of poultry caused by bacteria, fungi and viruses are reviewed. Skin conditions not induced by trauma are extremely rare in south west Scotland. Traumatic induced skin diseases still occur in modern poultry units and are associated with fighting or the use of poor materials in the structure of the house. Cases of staphylococcal wound infection and staphylococcal arthritis have been observed in poultry units where poor quality wire netting or hard spiky litter have been used as floor materials. Mention is also made of two pigeon diseases, pigeon pox and canker.

A large number of density measurements of the more important rock-types exposed at the surface in Ayrshire and certain neighbouring areas provide information for the interpretation of gravity measurements. The three methods employed of determining density are (1) laboratory measurements of rock samples, (2) gravimeter measurements in mineshafts, and (3) gravimeter measurements over topographic features.

The first method, the most widely used, is the only one applicable to many of the geological formations. A total of 600 specimens measured cover all the common rock types of the Lower and Upper Palaeozoic systems and their associated igneous rocks. Use of the second method is restricted to Carboniferous rocks, in which records from four mine-shafts—Littlemill 5, Mauchline I, Auchincruive I, and Houldsworth—cover much of the Carboniferous succession in south Ayrshire. The third method was seldom applied as there are few suitable topographic features, independent of geological structure, in Ayrshire.

The results of the measurements are summarized, and their reliability discussed. Two contrasts of rock density of regional importance occur in the sedimentary succession of south Ayrshire—the first at the plane of unconformity between Upper and Lower Old Red Sandstone, and the second between Lower Old Red Sandstone and the Lower Palaeozoic greywackes. A marked contrast of local importance occurs between the Permian sandstones of the Mauchline Basin and the underlying lavas and Carboniferous rocks. In north Ayrshire the most important density contrast lies between the Upper Palaeozoic sediments and the associated dense igneous rocks—the Clyde Plateau Lavas, the Millstone Grit lavas, and the thick dolerite intrusions.

The history of Edinburgh's sewage disposal to the sea from the open ditch system of the 17th century to the present day, together with the changes in legislation affecting sewage discharges to the firth, are reviewed. During the last thirty years sewage discharges have been monitored monthly for levels of faecal coliform bacteria at approximately thirty-four shore sites and twenty offshore sites. These coliform counts are used as bacteriological indicators of sewage pollution, in order to assess the risk to humans of infections that might result from the consumption of contaminated shellfish or from bathing in sewage-polluted waters. Most of the areas sampled from the inner firth were shown to be grossly polluted, particularly in late summer, and regularly to exceed guideline levels throughout the year. Since the commissioning of the new Seafield sewage works in 1979, a general improvement in bacterial and viral counts has been recorded on the south shore of the inner firth. In the last decade two European Community directives relating to the quality of seawater for bathing and shellfish growing have been promulgated, which set guideline and mandatory levels for the number of faecal coli in seawater. The Scottish Development Department has recently designated five beaches as bathing beaches and two areas on the north and south shores of the firth as shellfish growing areas. These areas have been regularly monitored by the Forth River Purification Board and the published results of both surveys are analysed. The virological studies carried out by the Forth Pollution Group of Napier College before and after the major change in the sewage discharge pattern into the Firth of Forth are reviewed.

Pre-messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) splicing or the removal of introns from pre-mRNA transcripts is a key process in the maturation of mRNA. This process requires the assembly of a large complex of RNA and protein molecules, called the splicosome, on the pre-mRNA transcripts. Molecular and biochemical analyses of plant intron sequence and structure and of the components of the plant spliceosome are providing information on the mechanism of intron recognition and splice site selection in both monocoty-ledonous and dicotyledonous plants. This knowledge will help in gaining an understanding of phenomena such as the difference in splicing between monocotyledonous and dictoyledonous plants, the enhancement of gene expression brought about by the presence of some introns and alternative splicing. The importance of introns and pre-mRNA splicing to accurate and regulated gene expression, therefore, is of direct relevance to transgene expression and genetic manipulation.

The concept of heritability is discussed in relation to the climatic changes which may affect the variations of age at sexual maturity in the fowl, and it is suggested that genetic and environmental variance, as expressed in the customary statistical formulation, may be largely synonymous terms.

Four groups of Brown Leghorn pullets are compared, one subject to no artificial lighting and the sub-optimal conditions of war years, a second to restricted lighting, and a third and fourth to 14-hour day length. The formal estimates of genetic and environmental variance were respectively 910 and 978, 594 and 546, 188 and 295, and 56 and 135. Further reduction of variability is apparent on subdivision into early and late hatches, heritability being apparently zero in the first case but maintained at an average level in the second.

Changes in variability substantiate the presence of genotype-environment interactions as previously reported, and similar conclusions follow from heterogeneity of regressions of age at maturity on date of hatch.