[14C[ethidium bromide has been used to determine drug levels in tissues and body fluids of rabbits and calves following intramuscular injection. Uninfected and Trypanosoma brucei- or Trypanosoma congolense-infected animals were studied. Blood and tissue fluid levels reached a maximum within 1 h and then fell rapidly; after 96 h 80–90% of the radioactivity injected had been excreted, approximately one third in urine and two thirds in faeces. By 1 h after injection of 1 mg [14C]ethidium/kg into a T. congolense-infected calf, 70–80% of the radioactivity in blood was found to be bound to trypanosomes. Doses of 1 or 10 mg/kg were found not to be curative for T. congolense or T. brucei infections in rabbits; drug treatment resulted in a period of sub-patent parasitaemia which was always followed by a relapse. Examination of the prophylactic action of ethidium in rabbits showed that the drug extended the pre-patent period following trypanosome inoculation but provided no absolute protection. A period of ‘apparent’ prophylaxis observed after drug treatment of infected rabbits has been correlated with the presence of anti-trypanosome IgG in the serum.

Different stages of Dipetalonema viteae (males, females, microfilariae, and 3rd-stage larvae) have been iodinated in vitro under physiological conditions by chloroglycoluril, lactoperoxidase or chloramine T. The concentrations of the catalysts were correlated with the viability of the worms. Localization of the label with the different iodination methods had been visualized by electron microscopical autoradiography. Chloroglycoluril-mediated iodination is predominantly localized on the filarial cuticle. Lactoperoxidase-catalysed iodination is less specific and chloramine T catalyses iodination in a gradient decreasing from the cuticle to inner structures. It is necessary to visualize the labelling by electron microscopical autoradiography prior to biochemical and immunological experiments to avoid the extraction of structures iodinated by leakage of the catalyst into sub-cuticular regions.

The paper examines the factors which generate various patterns of dispersion in the distribution of parasites within their host populations. Particular emphasis is placed on the role played by chance elements in the growth and decay of parasite populations and on the influence of different types of demographic processes. It is argued that observed distributions are dynamic, rather than static, entities generated by opposing forces, some acting to create over-dispersion and others acting to generate under-dispersion. Monte Carlo simulation experiments, based on probability models of the growth and decay of host and parasite populations, are used to study the dynamics of parasite dispersion. Attention is specifically focused on the role played by parasite-induced host mortality. It is shown that, for certain types of host–parasite associations, convex curves of mean parasite abundance in relation to age (age-intensity curves), concomitant with a decline in the degree of dispersion in the older age classes of hosts, may be evidence of the induction of host mortality by parasite infection. Empirical evidence is examined in light of this prediction. In general, however, simulation studies highlight the technical difficulties inherent in establishing clear evidence of parasite-induced host mortality from ecological studies of hosts and parasites in their natural habitats.

In Aedes aegypti (Singapore strain), a refractory host, there was a marked progressive decline of developing larvae of Breinlia booliati during the incubation period. However, in Aedes togoi, a susceptible host, the filarial larvae developed normally and the number of larvae remained constant throughout the incubation period. Encapsulation and melanization of B. booliati larvae in Ae. aegypti and Ae. togoi were studied. Ae. togoi occasionally mounted a defence reaction to the infection. In Ae. aegypti, various stages of filarial larvae were frequently affected by the defence mechanisms of the host, and a relatively large number of melanized larvae were recovered in dissections throughout the incubation period. The process of melanization is described and the relationship between melanization and haemocytes of mosquitoes is discussed. Haemocytes of the mosquito host appeared to be involved in the encapsulation of filarial larvae, as evidenced by adherence of cells to the cuticle of the larvae and the formation of a translucent, gelatinous envelope which contained intact cells, necrotic cells, spaces and numerous whitish granules. The possible involvement of a humoral reaction in bringing about the degeneration and retardation of the filarial larvae is discussed.

Histological studies using horse-radish peroxidase (HRP) as a marker, injected iontophoretically through a recording electrode, have indicated the origins of potentials encountered upon advancement of the electrode into and beneath the dorsal surface of adult male Schistosoma mansoni. The first potential encountered, having a value of – 51 ± 0·6 mV originates across the outer tegumental membrane. The next potential has a value of — 28 ± 0·6 mV and originates in the muscle masses underlying the tegument. Finally, a potential having the value — 10 ± 0·5 mV originates within the basal lamina and the interstitial fibres and extracellular space surrounding the muscle. Altering ion concentrations in the bathing medium (i.e. high K+, low Na+, zero Ca2+, low Cl−, high Li+) depolarizes all three potentials. External applications of ouabain and the anti-schistosomal, praziquantel, also cause depolarization of the potentials. It appears that the muscle potential and the tegumental potential are primarily K+-dependent. The depolarizing effects of ouabain, LiCl and low Na+ suggest that active transport is important in the maintenance of the muscle potential, just as is the case for the tegumental potential. There appears to be a close correlation between changes in the tegumental, muscle and extracellular space potentials. The correlation between tegument and muscle potential changes might be explained by junctional complexes between tegumental cell bodies and muscle cell bodies.

Standard intracellular microelectrode techniques were used to determine the electrical properties of the tegument and sub-tegumental regions in male Schistosoma mansoni. Three distinct compartments of electrical potential were observed. The resting potentials recorded in these compartments of –45·9±2·5 mV (Eteg), –22·0±1·1 mV (E2) and – 4·7±0·3 mV (E3) corroborate those previously reported by Fetterer, Pax & Bennett (1980) and Bricker, Pax & Bennett (1981). Input resistance was measured in each compartment and was found to be 4·5 MΩ (tegument), 9·2 MΩ (E2) and 3·5 MΩ (E3). Time-constants for the tegument, E2 and E3 were 0·24±0·01 msec, 0·25±0·01 msec and 0·13±0·01 msec, respectively. Multiple electrode experiments revealed that the tegument and E2 compartment are electrical syncytia with similar current-spreading capabilities. Low resistance pathways also appear to connect the tegument and E2 region, since electrotonic signals initiated in either of those compartments experience only a 15–25% reduction upon passing into the other. Injecting large (> 200 nA) depolarizing current pulses into the tegument or E2 compartment often resulted in the initiation of active membrane responses. These spikes were highly variable, ranging from 4 to 75 mV in magnitude (occasionally overshooting zero potential by as much as 25 mV) and from 10–40 msec in duration. The responses were not actively propagated along the parasite, and their decay over distance was approximately equal to that predicted on the basis of length constant values obtained from electrotonic signals. The addition of a non-diffusible solute to the recording medium resulted in a significant reduction in the current-spreading capacity of both the tegument and E2 compartment. Coupling ratios between the tegument and E2 compartment were decreased, and the input resistance for both compartments increased, while resting potentials remained constant. Active responses could not be evoked in schistosomes exposed to the hyperosmotic medium.

Activation of prophenol oxidase of Fasciola gigantica has been demonstrated using biochemical and electrophoretic techniques. Based on the difference in the electrophoretic pattern of the proenzyme and activated enzyme, a probable mechanism of activation of the prophenol oxidase is suggested. A role for Mehlis' gland in the activation process is suggested. The significance of the results is discussed in the light of related studies in insects.

About 35 of Angiostrongylus cantonensis larvae became patent adults irrespective of the dose used to establish primary infections in laboratory rats. Worm growth and fecundity was depressed in infections from high compared with low doses of infective larvae. Rats infected with up to 50 A. cantonensis larvae survived infection better than rats given greater numbers of larvae. The biology of A. cantonensis surviving in laboratory rats from single infections with 50 larvae for over a year was studied. Stable worm numbers and fecundity were established 90 days after infection but the worms continued to grow until the experiment was terminated.

Twenty-one day old Fasciola hepatica were recovered from the livers of infected mice and cultured for 5–7 days in a serum-free medium containing either [C]leucine, [C]isoleucine or [S]methionine, or in a medium containing [C]leucine and serum from a sheep vaccinated with excretory– secretory (ES) antigens of juvenile F. hepatica. All three labelled amino acids were incorporated into fluke proteins. Labelled proteins also appeared in the culture medium. Three major polypeptides detected in the culture media had apparent molecular weights of 26000, 24000 and 23000. All were immunoprecipitated from [C]leucine-labelled culture medium using antisera against fluke somatic antigens raised in rabbits or from sheep vaccinated with ES antigens of juvenile F. hepatica. A polypeptide of molecular weight 27 000 was also prominent in the culture medium when [C]isoleucine was used. This polypeptide was present as a minor component when [C]leucine and [S]methionine were included in the culture media; it did not appear to be immunoprecipitated by the above antisera from [C]leucine-labelled culture medium. In the presence of serum from vaccinated sheep, the ES antigens formed immune complexes which contained the polypeptides mentioned above, together with several higher molecular weight polypeptides. Additionally, a number of minor bands of varying molecular weight were present. After micro-Ouchterlony gel immunodiffusion, 2 precipitin lines formed between the labelled ES antigens and antisera. Electrophoresis of these indicated that the 23000, 24000 and 26000 Dalton labelled polypeptides were present in each. The higher molecular weight and the 27000 Dalton labelled polypeptides were also present in one of the lines.

The coevolution of parasites and their hosts has both general biological interest and practical implications in agricultural, veterinary and medical fields. Surprisingly, most medical, parasitological and ecological texts dismiss the subject with unsupported statements to the effect that ‘successful’ parasite species evolve to be harmless to their hosts. Recently, however, several people have explored theoretical aspects of the population genetics of host-parasite associations; these authors conclude that such associations may be responsible for much of the genetic diversity found within natural populations, from blood group polymorphisms (Haldane, 1949) to protein polymorphisms in general (Clarke, 1975, 1976) and to histocompatibility systems (Duncan, Wakeland & Klein, 1980). It has also been argued that pathogens may constitute the selective force responsible for the evolution and maintenance of sexual reproduction in animal and plant species (Jaenike, 1978; Hamilton, 1980, 1981, 1982; Bremermann, 1980).

Some information on acquired resistance of rabbits against Ixodes ricinus ticks has been obtained by comparing tissue changes and cellular infiltration during 2 successive infestations, with particular emphasis on the cells involved in immediate type hypersensitivity reactions: mast cells, basophils and eosinophils. More degranulated mast cells were observed in tick lesions 2 h after the beginning of re-infestation than in the first infestation and more degranulated basophils were present on the 5th day of re-infestation. Numerous eosinophils infiltrated the dermis, especially on the 5th day of the second infestation.

The effect of the parasitic water mite Hydrachna virella on its host Buenoa scimitra was investigated using laboratory experiments. The mite parasitizes all but the first instar of the host. Survival rates were found to be greater among unparasitized than parasitized individuals of these instars. Instantaneous death rates were observed to be linear functions of the number of mites supported/host. The mite's effect on the host's death rate appeared to be directly related to the size of the engorged mite compared to the size of the host; greater relative sizes were associated with greater impacts. Unparasitized females oviposited significantly more eggs than parasitized females, and the instantaneous birth rate of the host was observed to be a non-linear function of mite load.

Viruses are frequently referred to as the supreme parasites and yet it is now more than 20 years since any paper on this topic was published in Parasitology. This deficiency probably reflects the great emphasis placed during the last two decades on those aspects of virology christened by Sir Christopher Andrewes ‘dream virology’ (Andrewes, 1973), namely the molecular and genetic properties of viruses, in contrast to the more clinical and biological aspects of ‘steam’ virology. Many modern virologists select a virus as a convenient model system with which to investigate such things as genetic organization or control of transcription, with little regard for the interaction with the host cell that supports its replication. Paradoxically, it is this very emphasis on the detailed molecular mechanisms of virus replication that has now put us in a better position to understand the relationships between these highly specialized parasites and their host systems than for any other type of parasite. Recent advances in cell biology coupled with an understanding of the molecular basis of viral replicative mechanisms mean that new insight is possible into the interactions of a virus with its host. For example, we are just beginning to appreciate why a virus should infect one individual and not another, or why it should multiply only in certain tissues at certain stages of development of a multicellular organism. Indeed, study of such tropisms may frequently tell us as much about the host cell as about the virus.

Of the 39 most common helminth parasites of man listed by Peters & Gilles (1977), 30 may be detected and often diagnosed by finding their eggs or larvae in the faeces of infected people. The preferred habitat of many of these helminths is the alimentary tract itself and the continual flow of material through the food tube provides a simple, passive and reliable means of transport and eventual exit from the host for the reproductive stages of a worm. Helminth eggs are generally less than 150 μm in diameter and although individually comprise a small material investment by the adult worm in the propagation of the species, the chances of infecting a host are so slim (though this may be a teleological inference) that adult worms are often highly fecund: a female Ascaris lumbricoides is estimated to release daily into the intestine approximately 200,000 eggs (WHO, 1967). Yet numbers should not always be equated with great substance or bulk – an equally important determinant of the chances of finding an egg in faeces: assuming a spherical diameter of 60 μm and a specific gravity of 1·2 (Sawitz, 1942) then a female Ascaris is estimated to produce only about 25 mg of eggs each day, which is 0·01% of a moderate daily output of 250 g of faeces.