We introduce a system for generalised sound classification and similarity using a machine-learning framework. Applications of the system include automatic classification of environmental sounds, musical instruments, music genre and human speakers. In addition to classification, the system may also be used for computing similarity metrics between a target sound and other sounds in a database. We discuss the use of hidden Markov models for representing the temporal evolution of audio spectra and present results of testing the system on classification and retrieval tasks. The system has been incorporated into the MPEG-7 international standard for multimedia content description and is therefore publicly available in the form of a set of standardised interfaces and software reference tools for developers and researchers.

Machines incorporating techniques from artificial intelligence and machine learning can work with human users on a moment-to-moment, real-time basis to generate creative outcomes, performances and artefacts. We define such systems collaborative, creative AI systems, and in this article, consider the theoretical and practical considerations needed for their design so as to support improvisation, performance and co-creation through real-time, sustained, moment-to-moment interaction. We begin by providing an overview of creative AI systems, examining strengths, opportunities and criticisms in order to draw out the key considerations when designing AI for human creative collaboration. We argue that the artistic goals and creative process should be first and foremost in any design. We then draw from a range of research that looks at human collaboration and teamwork, to examine features that support trust, cooperation, shared awareness and a shared information space. We highlight the importance of understanding the scope and perception of two-way communication between human and machine agents in order to support reflection on conflict, error, evaluation and flow. We conclude with a summary of the range of design challenges for building such systems in provoking, challenging and enhancing human creative activity through their creative agency.

In 2005, the Princeton Laptop Orchestra (PLOrk), an ensemble of fifteen laptop-based meta-instruments, began its first season. In this article, the author explores the motivations for starting a laptop orchestra, both in musical and cultural terms, and some of the aesthetic, technical, and compositional issues that face those interested in working with such an ensemble.

Instrumentally oriented and individualistic approaches dominate the current perspectives on musical interaction and technologically oriented composition. A view that focuses on the broad aspects of creativity support is proposed as a viable theoretical and methodological alternative: ubiquitous music practice. This article summarises several findings in ubiquitous music research, pointing to new theoretical frameworks that tackle the volatile and distributed creativity factors involved in musical activities that take place outside of traditional venues, involving the audience as an active creative partner. A new definition of ubiquitous music is proposed encompassing four components related to the human and the material resources, the emergent properties of musical activities and the design strategies involved in supporting distributed decision making. We highlight the application of embedded-embodied cognition in creative practice, arguing for the adoption of an ecologically grounded framework as an alternative to the mainstream anthropocentric and disembodied acoustic-instrumental paradigms. We discuss the relevance of the new materialist concepts of ecologies and meshworks within artistic creative practice, highlighting the implications of the emergent creativity support methods for context-based composition.

The last fifty years has witnessed an enormous development with regard to sound production, and has opened a new world of novel aural experiences. In order to be able to articulate and discuss these experiences there is a need for a corresponding novel set of terms and concepts. Such a terminology would also be relevant for analytical and interpretive approaches to electroacoustic music, avant-garde Western music, and ethno music. Pierre Schaeffer's typomorphology, developed in the 1960s, proposed a variety of novel terms, but they have not been of widespread use, since they unfortunately did not lend themselves very well for practical analysis. The present paper intends to develop Schaeffer's approach in the direction of a practical tool for conceptualising and notating sound quality. While carefully reducing the sometimes-bewildering number of terms found in Schaeffer's work, it introduces a set of graphic symbols apt for transcribing electroacoustic music in a concise score. The analysis of sound objects calls for a specific listeners' intention, called reductive listening.

Once upon a time there was a computer music system called GROOVE (Generating Realtime Operations On Voltage-controlled Equipment, Bell Telephone Laboratories, Murray Hill, New Jersey) which outputted in the realm of sound, and was a wonderful and still-unique tool for the composition thereof. At that time a then-young composer who was using GROOVE for music got the harebrained idea that if she made a few minor changes here and there she could use it to compose images as well. This she did in 1974-6, and though the untimely demise of the system prevented creation of much documentation in the form of aesthetic works of its output, the system did function sufficiently to make some description worthwhile. While it is true that the mid-1960s DDP-224 computer on which GROOVE became a VAMPIRE (Video And Music Program for Interactive Realtime Exploration/Experimentation) was a massive room-sized computer, it has by now long been eclipsed in power by the constantly improving home computer. It is worth describing the concepts involved in part because there are by now many small computers capable of emulating its musical methods. Besides, I had a deep personal relationship with that computer, and wish to commemorate it. Here then follows the tale of Graphical GROOVE, aka the VAMPIRE.

The absence of gay themes and homoeroticism in electroacoustic music is discussed within the context of issues of gender and music that have been raised in the last decade. The author's emerging body of work that deals with these issues suggests possible uses of voice, text, video and music theatre within an electroacoustic language to portray sexuality and desire.

The main focus of this article is the work of Daphne Oram, composer of electronic music, who founded the BBC Radiophonic Workshop in 1958 and went on to run her own independent studio from where she composed several significant pieces of electronic music, designed and built a new audio recording machine, and lectured and wrote extensively on electronic and concrète music. The paper will endeavour to show that Ms Oram is deserving of recognition as an innovative composer of electronic and concrète music, as well as possessing interesting and valuable insight into the practice and theory of this medium. It will critically examine her work, and methods for achieving completed pieces, and compare and contrast her compositional work and the thinking behind it, to the work of other significant composers of the time.

Throughout the short history of interactive digital music, there have been frequent calls for a new language of interaction that incorporates and acknowledges the unique capabilities of the computational medium. In this paper we suggest that a conceptualisation of possible modes of performance–time interaction can only be sensibly approached in light of the ways that computers alter the social–artistic interactions that are precursive to performance. This conceptualisation hinges upon a consideration of the changing roles of composition, performer and instrument in contemporary practice. We introduce the term behavioural object to refer to software that has the capacity to act as the musical and social focus of interaction in digital systems. Whilst formative, this term points to a new framework for understanding the role of software in musical culture. We discuss the potential for behavioural objects to contribute actively to musical culture through two types of agency: performative agency and memetic agency.

This article reports on the first phase of a four-year, multi-university Canadian research project called ‘In and Out of the Studio’. The intention of this project is to study the experiences and working practices of women sound producers in Canada, and to produce a multimedia computer installation and set of articles about their ideas, approaches and philosophies. We are studying gender issues that affect the work of these women in areas as diverse as film sound recording and post-production, sound engineering, radio art, performance art, experimental music, audio documentary production, and web sound. This is a wide range of disciplines, with their associated professional formations. What links the experiences of these diverse cultural workers is their focus on organising sound, and their gender. The first phase of the research focuses on formations: the following phase will concentrate on working practices through a discussion and analysis of specific recent works produced by the participants. The second part of this article explores the working processes of Hildegard Westerkamp in her composition of Gently Penetrating Beneath the Sounding Surfaces of Another Place (1997), through an interview with Westerkamp conducted in 1997. This interview will be used as a model for the in-depth studio interviews in the present study.

This paper is about mapping strategies between gesture data and synthesis model parameters by means of perceptual spaces. We define three layers in the mapping chain: from gesture data to gesture perceptual space, from sound perceptual space to synthesis model parameters, and between the two perceptual spaces. This approach makes the implementation highly modular. Both perceptual spaces are developed and depicted with their features. To get a simple mapping between the gesture perceptual subspace and the sound perceptual subspace, we need to focus our attention on the two other mappings. We explain the mapping types: explicit/implicit, static/dynamic. We also present the technical and aesthetical limits introduced by mapping. Some practical examples are given of the use of perceptual spaces in experiments done at LMA in a musical context. Finally, we discuss several implications of the mapping strategies: the influence of chosen mapping limits onto performers' virtuosity, and the incidence of mapping on the learning process with virtual instruments and on improvisation possibilities.

This article examines differing approaches to the definition, classification and modelling of interactive music systems, drawing together both historical and contemporary practice. Concepts of shared control, collaboration and conversation metaphors, mapping, gestural control, system responsiveness and separation of interface from sound generator are discussed. The article explores the potential of interactive systems to facilitate the creation of dynamic compositional sonic architectures through performance and improvisation.

In this paper, we propose a theoretical framework for the design of tangible interfaces for musical expression. The main insight for the proposed approach is the importance and utility of familiar sensorimotor experiences for the creation of engaging and playable new musical instruments. In particular, we suggest exploiting the commonalities between different natural interactions by varying the auditory response or tactile details of the instrument within certain limits. Using this principle, devices for classes of sounds such as coarse grain collision interactions or friction interactions can be designed. The designs we propose retain the familiar tactile aspect of the interaction so that the performer can take advantage of tacit knowledge gained through experiences with such phenomena in the real world.

Self-organisation, as manifest, for example, by swarms, flocks, herds and other collectives, is a powerful natural force, capable of generating large and sustained structures. Yet the individuals who participate in these social groups may not even be aware of the structures that they are creating. Almost certainly, these structures emerge through the application of simple, local interactions. Improvised music is an uncertain activity, characterised by a lack of top-down organisation and busy, local activity between improvisers. Emerging structures may only be perceivable at a (temporal) distance. The development of higher-level musical structure arises from interactions at lower levels, and we propose here that the self-organisation of social animals provides a very suggestive analogy. This paper builds a model of interactivity based on stigmergy, the process by which social insects communicate indirectly by environment modification. The improvisational element of our model arises from the dynamics of a particle swarm. A process called interpretation extracts musical parameters from the aural environment, and uses these parameters to place attractors in the environment of the swarm, after which stigmergy can take place. The particle positions are reinterpreted as parameterised audio events. This paper describes this model and two applications, Swarm Music and Swarm Granulator.

Alvin Lucier's Music for Solo Performer (1965), often referred to as the ‘brain wave piece’, has become a key work of experimental music. Its setup, in which the brain waves of a solo performer are made to excite percussion instruments, has given the work a central place in the discourse on artistic sonification. However, only a small number of the authors making reference to the work seem to have studied the score, and even fewer have given thought to the score's implications for performance practice and aesthetic reflection. This paper pays detailed attention to these yet overlooked aspects, drawing on accounts of early performances as well as the authors’ participation in a 2012 performance led by the composer. We also trace the history of live-electronic equipment used for Music for Solo Performer and discuss the work's reception in sonification research.

In the domain of music for performers and electronic sounds (whether fixed or live) there are various paradigms of interaction: the performer(s) may be situated in an electroacoustic ‘environment’; there may be a primarily responsorial or ‘proliferating’ relationship; or the relationship may be closer to the traditional one between soloist and accompaniment. These paradigms preserve a relatively unproblematic dichotomy between performer, whose sound is inextricably linked to a sense of action, presence and spontaneity, and fixed or treated sound, which is more or less de-coupled from this presence. Once one tries to create a continuous, intimate relation between the two, so that one is dealing with an extension of the instrument rather than an emulated ‘other’ or environmental context, one is confronted with a fundamental difference between a sounding body whose physical properties transparently determine its sonic possibilities, and the loudspeaker, which can produce practically any sound at all. This paper interrogates this dichotomy between the fallible-corporeal and the fixed-disembodied, activating questions both about the social fact of live performance and about the compositional practices which give rise to a sense of extended instrumentality.

Mobile phones offer an attractive platform for interactive music performance. We provide a theoretical analysis of the sensor capabilities via a design space and show concrete examples of how different sensors can facilitate interactive performance on these devices. These sensors include cameras, microphones, accelerometers, magnetometers and multitouch screens. The interactivity through sensors in turn informs aspects of live performance as well as composition though persistence, scoring, and mapping to musical notes or abstract sounds.

Aesthetics are gaining increasing recognition as an important topic in auditory display. This article looks to embodied cognition to provide an aesthetic framework for auditory display design. It calls for a serious rethinking of the relationship between aesthetics and meaning-making in order to tackle the mapping problem which has resulted from historically positivistic and disembodied approaches within the field. Arguments for an embodied aesthetic framework are presented. An early example is considered and suggestions for further research on the road to an embodied aesthetics are proposed. Finally a closing discussion considers the merits of this approach to solving the mapping problem and designing more intuitively meaningful auditory displays.

Software-based musical instruments have controls for input, a sound synthesizer for output, and mappings connecting the two. An effective layout of controls considers how many degrees of freedom each has, as well as the overhead of selecting each one while performing. An isolated mapping from one control to one synthesis parameter needs an appropriate choice of proportional, integral or derivative control (the control's value, or that value's rate of change, drives the synthesis parameter's value, or that value's rate of change). Beyond this, a compound mapping cross-coupling several controls and synthesis parameters can surprisingly increase the performer's intuitive understanding of the instrument.

In this vision paper I will discuss a few questions concerning the use of generative processes in composition and automatic music creation. Why do I do it, and does it really work? I discuss the problems involved, focusing on the use of interactivity, and describe the use of interactive evolution as a way of introducing interactivity in composition. The installation MutaSynth is presented as an implementation of this idea.