Reef-building corals are fundamental to the most diverse marine ecosystems, and the coral–dinoflagellate (zooxanthellae) associations on fine scale remains largely unknown. Spatial variation in the diversity of symbiotic dinoflagellates of two scleractinian coral species was studied in an upwelling region near Qinlan Harbor in eastern Hainan Island, China. Results showed that stress-tolerant Symbiodinium trenchi in individual colonies of Galaxea fascicularis occurred more frequently in shallow back-reef than in deep fore-reef. The higher symbiont diversity was found in colonies of G. fascicularis in shallow and close to the harbour mouth whereas the coral Pocillipora damicornis always harboured Symbiodinium internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) types C1c or C42a. Furthermore, both corals were found to simultaneously contain Symbiodinium ITS2 types belonging to two distinct phylogenetic clades (C and D). This indicates that the distribution of genetically distinct Symbiodinium may correlate with light regime and possibly temperature in some (but not all) colonies at particular locations, which we interpret as holobiont acclimation to the local environmental conditions. Therefore, we conclude that reef-building corals can adapt to the local environment by harbouring genetically distinct symbionts but depend on their respective symbiont transmission modes.

Although the practice of recreational feeding of fish by tourists is widespread within marine protected areas (MPAs), the ecological consequences of this activity have received little attention. This research aimed to investigate the influence of artificial feeding on reef fish communities of two Brazilian MPAs. Visual censuses were performed in areas not visited by tourists, in order to characterize the natural community structure of each reef system. In the Maracajaú reefs, the effect of artificial feeding was assessed below a moored floating dock found in the area. Stationary visual censuses were carried out before, during and after the fish feeding activity. In the Maragogi reefs, areas with presence and absence of tourism visitation were established. Transect methodology was employed in each of these areas. On both MPAs, fish feeding was a formal activity and occurred on a daily basis during the course of this study. Within the MPAs, 88 species belonging to 40 families were recorded. In Maracajaú, fish, shrimps and squids were provided by the tourists on the floating dock, which favoured mobile invertebrate feeders, whereas in Maragogi, animal ration and human food were used, causing aggregations of omnivores. Differences were observed in terms of abundance between before and after feeding in Maracajaú and between the control and impacted areas of Maragogi. The data are consistent with fish feeding leading to attraction of determined species, causing an increase in their abundance, also indicating that both the type of food and the extension of activity area are important factors determining the effects on fish communities.

Although thalassinidean shrimps exert considerable influence over the structure of benthic communities no ecological studies have been conducted on the larvae and adults of Lepidophthalmus siriboia and Upogebia vasquezi in the equatorial region. The aim of the present study was to identify the reproductive period of these species in an Amazonian estuary. Monthly collections were performed in the estuary of the Marapanim River (northern coast of Brazil) over the course of one year (August 2006 to July 2007) and adults were obtained from bare sandy substrate and between boulders in the intertidal zone of the estuary at four sites. Thalassinidean larvae were also sorted from plankton samples (200 μm mesh) collected monthly at six sites. Larvae of the species Callichirus major, Lepidophthalmus siriboia and Upogebia vasquezi were collected, whereas adults of only the latter two species were found. Upogebia vasquezi was the most abundant species. There was no correlation between larval density and abiotic factors (water temperature, salinity and pH); however, the density of U. vasquezi adults was negatively correlated with salinity in the burrows. Lepidophthalmus siriboia and U. vasquezi reproduce throughout the year in the Marapanim River estuary, with peaks of greater intensity in some reproductive periods of the year, mainly correlated with changes in salinity.

This study examined the stomach contents of 11 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops sp.), five Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) and two spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) that were found stranded along the Omani coastline. Across the three species examined, a total of 4796 fish otoliths and 214 cephalopod beaks were found, representing at least 33 species in 22 families. Prey item importance was calculated using the percentage by number and percentage by frequency of occurrence methods, and a modified index of relative importance. The fish families Apogonidae, Carangidae and Scombridae were the most numerically important prey of the bottlenose dolphins. Sciaenidae was the most numerically important fish family for the Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins. The myctophid Benthosema pterotum formed the majority of the prey items of spinner dolphins. Cephalopod remains found in the stomach samples were represented by the families Sepiidae, Loliginidae and Onychoteuthidae. The known depth distribution of prey items of bottlenose dolphins indicated that the animals fed in a wide variety of habitats. Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin prey items indicated feeding in shallow coastal areas. Spinner dolphins appear to have exploited the upper 200 m of the water column for food, where their vertically migrating mesopelagic prey are found at night. Most prey species found in the stomach contents do not appear to be of current commercial importance in Oman. However, the findings here indicated that all three species of dolphins were feeding in areas where artisanal and/or commercial fishing occurs and has conservation implications.

Larvae of Stenorhynchus seticornis were reared in the laboratory in a factorial experiment employing three temperatures (22, 25 and 28°C) and three salinities (30, 35 and 40‰) to determine the effects of these variables on the survival and duration of the larval stages. Larvae from five females were subdivided in six groups of 10 and reared in glass bowls containing 125 ml filtered and UV-irradiated seawater at different temperature–salinity combinations. Larvae were transferred daily to clean bowls with newly hatched Artemia nauplii, and the number of moults and mortality within each bowl was recorded. Complete larval development of S. seticornis occurred under all experimental conditions, except at temperature 28°C and salinity 35‰. Salinity affected percentage survival of the two zoeal stages, but not that of the megalopa. Survival of the second zoeal stage, the megalopa, and the complete development to the first crab was affected by temperature, with the greatest survival occurring at 25°C. Duration of the two zoeal stages, the megalopa, and development to the first crab stage showed a gradual reduction with increasing temperature. Development from hatching to the first crab stage required 17 to 31 days and was inversely related to temperature, averaging 26.9 days at 22°C, 21.0 days at 25°C and 19.7 days at 28°C. Salinity affected the duration of the first zoeal stage only.

Several hydroid species live associated with many organisms, including bacteria. Hydroid–bacteria associations were searched for in twenty Hydrozoa species that were collected in the northern Ionian Sea and observed under blue light excitation. Of these, six showed high fluorescence on the outer perisarc, five appeared medium fluorescent, four were slightly fluorescent, and five did not show any fluorescence. Luminous bacteria were isolated and counted from the surface of the fluorescent hydroids. Their association with hydrozoan species could be explained by their feeding activity on the chitinous structures of the perisarc, as previous research on the hydroid Aglaophenia octodonta showed. Moreover, microalgae were always recovered together with luminous bacteria in the strongly, medium and slightly fluorescent hydroids. Further studies will be undertaken to characterize the luminous bacteria isolated from the surface of the examined hydrozoans as well as to better understand whether their interaction with hydroids is only related to chitin utilization or if their coexistence with microalgae in hydrozoans has an ecological meaning.

In order to determine optimal feeding regimes for captive corals, prey capture by the scleractinian coral Galaxea fascicularis was determined by measuring clearance of prey items from the surrounding water. Colonies of G. fascicularis (sized between 200 and 400 polyps) were incubated in 1300 ml incubation chambers. Nauplii of the brine shrimp Artemia sp. were used as the prey item. A series of incubation experiments was conducted to determine the maximal capture per feeding event and per day. To determine maximal capture per feeding event, total uptake of nauplii after one hour was determined for different prey item availabilities ranging from 50 to 4000 nauplii per polyp. To determine maximal capture per day, the corals were subjected to four repetitive feeding events at three different prey item densities (50, 100 and 150 nauplii per polyp). Alongside these quantitative experiments, it was tested to what extent the feeding response of corals is triggered by chemical cues. One hour after food addition, extract of Artemia nauplii was added to the incubation chambers to test its effect on subsequent prey capture rates. In all experiments, prey capture was expressed as the number of nauplii consumed per coral polyp. Total capture of Artemia nauplii by G. fascicularis after a single feeding event increased linearly up till a prey item availability of 2000 nauplii per polyp. Maximal capture per feeding event was estimated at 1200 nauplii per polyp, which is higher than rates reported in previous studies. It became apparent that at high densities of Artemia nauplii, the clearance rate method does not discriminate between active capture and passive sedimentation. Repetitive feeding with 50 nauplii per polyp resulted in a constant total prey capture per feeding event. At a supply of 100 nauplii per polyp, total capture decreased after the first feeding event, and remained constant during the subsequent feeding events at a level comparable to the lower food availability. However, at a supply of 150 nauplii per polyp, total capture per event was higher throughout the entire four-hour incubation period, which obfuscates an accurate estimation of the maximal daily food uptake. In all incubations, a decrease in capture efficiency was observed within the course of the feeding event. In all repetitive feeding experiments, capture efficiency increased immediately upon addition of a new batch of food. This increase in efficiency was not caused by a priming effect of extract of Artemia. The inconsistencies in the data show that estimates of prey capture based on clearance rates should be interpreted with caution, because this method does not take into account potential dynamics of prey capture and release.

Colonization experiments were conducted in a tropical lagoon (Zanzibar Island, off the coast of Tanzania) to investigate the temporal dynamics and mode of colonization of the harpacticoid copepods community on dead coral fragments. There was fast colonization of the coral fragments attaining a substantial diversity after only two days. The ability to colonize dead coral fragments is thought to be related to the morphology and life style of different harpacticoid species. Phytal taxa (e.g. Tisbidae) were fast colonizers, reaching high abundances during the initial colonization phase. Sediment-associated and eurytopic taxa (e.g. Ameiridae, Miraciidae and Ectinosomatidae) showed lower colonization rates and became the dominant group during the later colonization phase. Most species are able to colonize the coral fragments through the water column. However, colonization along the substrate surface is also considered to be an important colonization mode, especially for sediment-associated taxa, which showed lower colonization rates when migration through the sediment was hindered.

This study describes phenotypic and genotypic variations in the planktonic copepod, Centropages typicus (Copepoda: Calanoida) that indicate differentiation between geographical samples. We found consistent differences in the morphology of the chela of the sexually modified fifth pereiopod (P5) of male C. typicus between samples from the Mediterranean, western North Atlantic and eastern North Atlantic. A 560 base pairs (bp) region of the C. typicus mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and a 462 bp fragment of the nuclear rDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) tandem array were analysed to determine whether these morphological variations reflect population genetic differentiation. Mitochondrial haplotype diversity was found to be high with 100 unique COI haplotypes among 116 individuals. Analysis of mtCOI variation suggested differentiation between the Mediterranean and Atlantic populations but no separation was detected within the Atlantic. Intragenomic variation in the ITS array suggested genetic differentiation between samples from the western North Atlantic and those from the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean. Breeding experiments would be required to elucidate the extent of genetic isolation between C. typicus from the different population centres.

Knowledge about the diet of fish-eating predators is critical when evaluating conflicts with the fishing industry. Numerous primary studies have examined the diet of grey seals Halichoerus grypus and common seals Phoca vitulina in a bid to understand the ecology of these predators. However, studies of large-scale spatial and temporal variation in seal diet are limited. Therefore this review combines the results of seal diet studies published between 1980 and 2000 to examine how seal diet varies at a range of spatial and temporal scales. Our results revealed extensive spatial variation in gadiform, perciform and flatfish consumption, likely reflecting variation in prey availability. Flatfish and gadiform consumption varied between years, reflecting changes in fish assemblages as a consequence of factors such as varying fishing pressures, climate change and natural fluctuations in populations. Perciform and gadiform consumption varied seasonally: in addition there was a significant interaction between season and seal species, indicating that grey and common seals exhibited different patterns of seasonal variation in their consumption of Perciformes and Gadiformes. Multivariate analysis of grey seal diet revealed spatial variation at a much smaller scale, with different species dominating the diet in different areas. The existence of spatial and temporal variation in seal diet emphasizes that future assessments of the impact of seal populations should not be based on past or localized estimates of diet and highlights the need for up-to-date, site specific estimates of diet composition in the context of understanding and resolving seal/fisheries conflict.

The morphology of the setae, on the mouthparts and the cirri of 33 barnacle species, was investigated by scanning electron microscopy. The species examined were selected from a range of pedunculate and balanomorph families living in a variety of habitats from the littoral zone to deep-sea vents. It was found that the setae could be divided into five groups: simple, denticulate, setulate, plumo-denticulate and aesthetascs. The categories were subdivided resulting in 43 setal types being recognized. Balanomorph cirripedes were found to have a greater variety of setae than pedunculates. Setulate setae on the cirri, and specialized setae on the mandibular palps and the first maxillae tended to be associated with the development of the balanomorph form. Setal type was correlated with taxonomy, whether based on shell structure and soft body morphology or DNA analysis, but with some anomalies which deserve further investigation. The problems of reconciling the proposed cirripede setal categories with those described in the Decapoda are discussed.

Three species: Oxyonchus orientalis sp. nov., O. sakchalinensis sp. nov., and O. nicholasi sp. nov. (Thoracostomopsidae: Nematoda) are described and illustrated with the aid of light microscopy and laser-scanning microscopy pictures from sediments of Far Eastern Seas (the one former species from the Sea of Japan, Eastern Russia and the two latter species from the Sea of Okhotsk, Sakhalin Island). Generic diagnosis is emended for identification of Oxyonchus. Oxyonchus orientalis sp. nov. has short cephalic sensillae (0.6 cephalic diameters), strongly developed broad mandibular plate with irregular arrangement of numerous small denticles. Oxyonchus sakhalinensis sp. nov. is particularly characterized by the weakly short cephalic capsule, and the rounded thin mandibular plates with 10 denticles. Oxyonchus nicholasi sp. nov. can be differentiated by the structure of the cephalic armament (well developed capsule, fenestrae and incisions), numerous long cervical setae and tail shape. The distribution patterns of the various Oxyonchus species was suggested.

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes and fatty acid compositions of Aurelia aurita, Stomolophus meleagris and Cyanea nozakii collected from the Yellow Sea in August 2009, were analysed. δ13C and δ15N values of the jellyfishes were in the range of −22.0‰ to −17.4‰ and 4.8‰ to 10.6‰, respectively, which indicated that jellyfishes in this study area were mainly dependent on marine-based carbon. The trophic levels of jellyfishes were estimated as between zooplanktons and high level carnivorous fishes. Low C18:1n-7/n-9 ratios and high C20:1 (n-11 and n-9) and C22:1 (n-11 and n-9) concentrations suggested jellyfishes in the Yellow Sea were carnivorous and zooplanktons were an important diet for them. Fatty acid compositions of jellyfishes were characterized by high C20:4n-6 concentration (>10%), with ratios of C20:5n-3/C22:6n-3 >1. Specific fatty acids (C20:1 + C22:1 and C20:4n-6) indicated that both pelagic-derived material and benthic detritus-derived food were diet of jellyfishes. Variations of certain biomarkers (C15:0 + C17:0, C20:1 + C22:1 (n-11 and n-9) and C20:4n-6) in jellyfishes of different body sizes suggested that ontogenetic diet shifts may take place during the growth of jellyfishes. Larger individuals with higher C20:1 + C22:1 (n-11 and n-9) concentration, tended to consume more zooplanktons; while the detritus-derived material made a more significant contribution to the small individuals, as suggested by higher C15:0 + C17:0 and C20:4n-6 concentrations. According to our study, besides the diet, species seemed to influence variations in stable isotopes and fatty acid compositions in jellyfishes.

The effect of temperature on brood development was investigated for three intertidal hymenosomatid crabs: Halicarcinus cookii, H. varius and H. innominatus in Kaikoura, New Zealand. The duration of brood incubation decreased as temperature increased, as did the interbrood period. The duration of each stage of brood development also decreased with increased temperature, but the proportion of total incubation time for each stage remained relatively similar at different temperatures. Hymenosomatid crabs have determinate growth, but moult to maturity at different sizes, thereafter devoting most of their energy to reproduction. The number of broods a female could carry in her lifetime was estimated for each species. Halicarcinus cookii was estimated to be able to produce eight complete broods of 1146 eggs per lifetime, H. varius was estimated to be able to produce seven complete broods of 1051 eggs per lifetime and H. innominatus was estimated to be able to produce six complete broods of 1081 eggs per life time. With the predicted global temperature rise of 2°C in the next 50 years, the authors estimate that, for all three species, a female could produce one extra brood per lifetime (a 10–15% increase in fecundity depending on species), even more if crabs reach maturity faster, potentially leading to a significant population increase.

The impact of bottom trawling on cold-water corals (CWC) has been thoroughly studied and shown to be long-lasting; however the effects of bottom longlining on CWC ecosystems have received little attention. The present paper identifies the principal CWC species landed by bottom longlining in Faial (Azores) from 150 to 600 m depth. Data were obtained from a survey of 297 landings during four months coupled with 16 interviews with fishermen. A distinction was made among corals brought on deck directly entangled in the fishing gear (primary by-catch) from corals brought up associated with other larger CWC species or rocks (secondary by-catch). Forty-five (15.2%) of 297 fishing trips surveyed landed coral specimens. The survey recorded 39 different CWC taxa in the by-catch, belonging to five different orders (Scleractinia, Alcyonacea, Antipatharia, Zoanthidea and Anthoathecata). Secondary by-catch included a larger number of species but the total number of corals was in the same order of magnitude for both groups. The taxa most frequently encountered were Leiopathes spp., Errina dabneyiand Dendrophyllia sp. CWC taxa in the by-catch were mostly medium size (10–60 cm), 3-dimensional and branched colonies. Local ecological knowledge of fishermen confirmed that the corals recorded were representative of their past experience and also revealed a general agreement that there has been a decrease of CWC by-catch on traditional fishing grounds. Corals are common by-catch in bottom longline fisheries around the Azores and so conservation measures may be required.

A new species of Paraseison (Rotifera: Seisonacea: Seisonidae) is described from the eastern Pacific Ocean off the coast of California. Female and male specimens of the new species were attached inside the carapace of the leptostracan crustacean Nebalia hessleri, collected at 19 m depth in La Jolla Canyon. This recording represents the first properly identified and described species of Seisonacea for the American coasts. It is furthermore the second known species of the genus Paraseison, which until now included the species P. annulatus only, reported for the Mediterranean Sea and European west Atlantic coast. The new species was diagnosed mostly by its species-specific trophi morphology and in particular by the shape of its fulcrum. Paraseison kisfaludyi sp. nov. is the fourth described species of the order Seisonacea, which accommodates also Seison nebaliae and the recently described S. africanus, all of which live attached to species in the leptostracan genus Nebalia. Even though the Seisonacea are placed in a crucial position within the phylum and may constitute the link between rotifers and other platyzoans, this taxon has in many respects been neglected in morphological studies. Herein we provide new information on the group's taxonomy, morphology and distribution, which will be useful for future phylogenetic and zoogeographical studies.

Barnacles of the superfamily Coronuloidea are epibiotic on marine vertebrates. In the present study, 13 species in 9 genera of coronulid barnacles were collected in Japan and a distributional map of epibiotic barnacles (Cirripedia: Thoracica: Coronuloidea) in Japanese waters is presented. The hosts including sea turtles, whales and dolphins and 4 species of these barnacles are listed as new records for Japan.

The population structure, size at maturity, reproductive period, recruitment and habitat use were studied in a population of the grapsoid crab Cyrtograpsus altimanus in an intertidal mussel bed at San Antonio Bay, Argentina. Samples were taken from October 2000 to January 2002. Crabs were sized and sexed to estimate size–frequency distributions (SFD). Modal groups of males and females were the same. Growth, evidenced by the shift to right of SFD modal classes, was observed in spring, summer and autumn. Size at maturity of females varied seasonally. Ovigerous females were found in winter, spring and summer, but two discrete recruitment events (in spring and autumn) are proposed. Based on the maximum male and female sizes found in the mussel bed, a size constraint is proposed that forces large crabs to migrate to cobblestone adjacent habitats.

Improved coral cultivation will facilitate the reduction of wild harvesting, reef restoration, preservation of biodiversity, and the use of corals as model experimental organisms. In this study, we examine species-specific responses in growth and survival of corals from the effects of light, water motion and artificial (i.e. non-living aquarium trade) food supplements. Three species representing distinct, diverse and abundant coral genera were chosen (Montipora capitata(Mc), Porites compressa (Pc) and Pocillopora damicornis (Pd)) for three experiments to examine: (1) the interaction of water flow and light on growth and survival of Mc and Pc; (2) the effects of artificial foods on Mc, Pc and Pd; and (3) the effects of increasing dosage of artificial foods in an open system on Mc and Pc. Pc thrived at the highest light levels with low flow, while Mc exhibited bleaching and reduced growth in the same conditions and grew best in shaded treatments. High constant flow (~11 cm s-1) resulted in slightly less overall growth than low constant flow (~4 cm s-1). Some artificial foods resulted in a significant increase in growth in Mc and Pd, but not in Pc. These combined results suggest that Mc may be more heterotrophic than Pc. This study illustrates that each species has unique requirements for optimal growth conditions that can be determined by relatively simple and low cost experiments, but that ideal conditions for one species might not be generalized to others.

This study presents new information on feeding habits of Guiana dolphins, Sotalia guianensis, in south-eastern Brazil, together with new regression equations to evaluate the weight and length of fish from otoliths, showing an overview on the knowledge about this species’ diet in this area. Eighteen stomach contents had been analysed and compared to 180 samples collected in another eight feeding studies. The analysed specimens were either incidentally caught in gillnets used in coastal waters by the fleet based in the Cananéia main harbour (25°00′S 47°55′W), south of São Paulo State, or found dead in inner waters of the Cananéia estuary between 2003 and 2009. Based on the index of relative importance analysis, the most important fish species were the banded croaker, Paralonchurus brasiliensis. Doryteuthis plei was the most representative cephalopod species. Stellifer rastrifer was the most important fish species observed in dolphins in inner estuarine waters and P. brasiliensis in recovered dolphins from coastal waters. Loliguncula brevis is the only cephalopod species reported from dolphins found in inner estuarine waters up to date. Doryteuthis plei was the most important cephalopod species observed in coastal dolphins. When considering other feeding studies, the most representative fish family in the diet of S. guianensis was Sciaenidae, which is mainly represented by demersal fishes. The main preys of S. guianensis are abundant in the studied areas, which may indicate an opportunistic feeding habit. The majority of them are not the most important target species by the commercial fishery in south-eastern Brazil.