To compare the efficacy and safety characteristics of endoscopic and microscopic stapes surgery based on current evidence.

A systematic literature search was conducted of three medical databases, focusing on randomised, controlled studies or observational studies. Data related to the efficacy and safety of each technique were extracted. Outcome data were summarised using the pooled mean differences or pooled odds ratios, along with their 95 per cent confidence intervals.

Thirteen studies were included in the meta-analysis. Success rate was evaluated by estimating air–bone gap improvement; this revealed comparable outcomes for the two techniques (mean difference = −0.20; 95 per cent confidence interval = −0.53, 0.14). No statistically significant difference was detected concerning post-operative complications, except for dysgeusia (odds ratio = −1.12; 95 per cent confidence interval = −1.97, −0.28) and pain (odds ratio = −2.00; 95 per cent confidence interval = −2.97, −1.04), which favoured the endoscopic approach.

Though both techniques result in commensurate outcomes concerning success rate, post-operative pain and dysgeusia favour the endoscopic approach. Further high-quality studies are needed to adequately compare the two methods.

This study aimed to compute the pooled prevalence of diabetes mellitus and other underlying conditions in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 associated rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis.

A systematic literature review was performed in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Embase and Google Scholar. The cross-sectional studies that reported the frequency of diabetes mellitus in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 associated rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis were included.

Eighteen eligible studies with a total number of 3718 patients were included in the current study. The pooled prevalence of diabetes in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 associated rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis was 89 per cent and with new-onset diabetes was 32 per cent. The pooled prevalence of steroid use was high (79 per cent) too. The all-cause mortality rate was 24 per cent.

Diabetes mellitus was the most frequent underlying condition in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 associated rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis. The second most frequent underlying condition was steroid use during coronavirus disease 2019 infection. The appropriate control of hyperglycaemia and rational prescription of steroids during the treatment of coronavirus disease 2019 associated rhino-orbito-cerebral mucormycosis is recommended.

The increased incidence of necrotising otitis externa over the last decade has had a significant burden on healthcare providers. Several factors may affect outcome, and stratifying risk may allow personalised treatment.

Retrospectively identified patients were prospectively surveyed over 12 months. The Cox proportional hazards model was used to identify predictors of poor prognosis.

Twenty-six patients with necrotising otitis externa (average age of 80 years) were admitted from 2018 to 2019. At one year, 19 per cent mortality was observed. A high Charlson Comorbidity Index was associated with increased mortality (p = 0.03), prolonged in-patient stay (p = 0.047) and increased odds of adverse outcomes (odds ratio = 1.48, 95 per cent confidence interval = 0.26–2.67, p = 0.019). The Charlson Comorbidity Index in our prognostic model was validated using the receiver operating characteristic curve (area under the curve = 0.76). Charlson Comorbidity Index score of 5 or more independently predicted one-year morbidity and mortality (hazard ratio = 1.30, 95 per cent confidence interval = 0.94–1.79, p = 0.03).

Risk-stratifying patients may enable clinicians to holistically counsel patients and tailor their treatment to improve their prognosis and subsequently alleviate the burden of necrotising otitis externa.

For centuries, the tympanum has remained the only visible structure of the organ of hearing. This study aimed to trace the understanding of the tympanic membrane from antiquity to the early twentieth century.

A review was conducted of primary and secondary historical and scientific literature describing the tympanic membrane anatomy.

Although ancient polymaths sensed that sounds were vibrations that could spread in the air and be perceived by the hearing organ, there were numerous misconceptions about the tympanum until human dissections performed during the Renaissance. The tympanum was correctly described only centuries later when technological advances enabled otologists to understand it as a fundamental part of the hearing organ.

The tympanic membrane history reflects key stages in medical knowledge; limited for centuries, a great technological leap was possible in the nineteenth century, contributing to the emergence of otologists and laying the foundations of modern otology.

Endoscopic endonasal surgery is a minimally invasive technique that has revolutionised the management of complex neurosurgical, otolaryngological, skull-base and craniofacial lesions. Traditionally performed under general anaesthetic, this study explores the growing role of local anaesthetic techniques.

A contemporaneous review of modified dental techniques and intraoral anatomy provides a supportive guide for performing endoscopic sinus surgery under local anaesthetic.

The practical procedures for four midfacial nerve blocks are described with relevance to endoscopic surgery under local anaesthetic. Anatomy, surgical technique and potential complications are discussed for the incisive foramen block, sphenopalatine ganglion block (via endonasal approach), maxillary nerve block (via the greater palatine foramen and the transoral lateral pterygoid plate approach) and transcutaneous approach to the pterygomaxillary fissure.

Ultimately, such techniques may extend the safety and efficacy of endoscopic sinus surgery, limit surgical risk and increase satisfaction for patients, surgeons and healthcare managers alike.

Epithelial migration has been associated with the self-cleansing mechanism of the ear. The rate and pattern of epithelial migration in healthy and pathological ears are reviewed.

Two authors independently screened articles over one month using the following search terms: epithelial migration, epithelial, tympanic membrane, external auditory canal and mastoidectomy cavity.

Ten studies were included. The fastest rate of epithelial migration was observed in the external auditory canal, with a mean of 144.75 μm per day, whereas the slowest epithelial migration was seen in post-mastoidectomy cavities, with a rate of 20 μm per day. Epithelial migration was present in both studies involving post-mastoidectomy cavities.

Epithelial migration is faster in healthy tympanic membrane than in pathological tympanic membrane. The rate of epithelial migration in the external auditory canal was higher in the pathological group than in the healthy group. Epithelial migration is present in post-mastoidectomy cavities.

This study aimed to formulate a scoring system based on high-resolution computed tomography scans to predict ease of electrode insertion during cochlear implantation via posterior tympanotomy in paediatric patients.

A scoring system Cochlear Implantation Radiological Assessment Score (CIRAS) was formulated based on six parameters. This score was correlated with intra-operative findings, and receiver operating characteristic analysis was performed to determine the optimal cut-off score to predict difficulty of surgery and to establish the inherent validity of the scoring system by area under curve.

Receiver operating characteristic analysis showed that optimal cut-off score was 8 (93.1 per cent specificity and 56.52 per cent sensitivity), and area under the curve was 0.828. Patients with CIRAS of more than 8 had significantly higher time for surgery (p < 0.05).

CIRAS is an easy to administer tool by utilising classical axial and coronal sections, without any numerical measures. Pre-operative assessment by this score gives a good idea of intra-operative challenges.

Politzer's tuning fork test is a little-known special examination with a chequered history.

This paper gives Politzer's original description, and explains how he intended it to be used.

The historiographical research in this study is based on primary references. Secondary documentation is only cited when it is necessary to substantiate any historical argument.

After the apparent disappearance of Politzer's tuning fork test from the otological scene in the 1950s, its consequent resurrection was not what it seemed. This story underlines the need for a standardisation of otological nomenclature, particularly when eponyms are used.

Mastoid exploration remains an advanced, mainstay operation within ENT, in which the surgical trainees’ role has been debated. This audit compares mastoid exploration outcomes between trainees and consultants.

Cortical mastoidectomy, atticotomy, atticoantrostomy, modified radical mastoidectomy, combined-approach tympanoplasty and revision mastoidectomy operations performed between 2009 and 2020 were reviewed. Complications assessed were: facial palsy, labyrinth injury, dead ear, disease recurrence and time to recurrence. The chi-square test was used to determine significant associations.

A total of 118 operations were surveyed. Thirty-five per cent of procedures (n = 41) were performed by trainees under supervision, and 65 per cent (n = 77) were carried out solely by consultants. Patients from 5 per cent of trainees’ operations (n = 2) developed recurrence, compared with 7.8 per cent of consultants’ (n = 6) (p = 0.55). No other complications developed in either group.

The results corroborate those of other studies, indicating no significant increase in complication rate from consultants to trainees. Trainees likely completed less complicated cases. The stepwise incorporation of trainees did not compromise patient safety.

The aim of this study was to identify any relationship between hearing loss and mild cognitive impairment.

This was a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials conducted using Medline and the Cochrane Library up to 24 June 2020. Prospective, cohort and cross-sectional, and observational studies that reported on the relationship between mild cognitive impairment and hearing loss were included.

A total of 34 studies reporting data on 48 017 participants were included. Twenty-three studies observed a significant association between hearing loss and mild cognitive impairment. The pooled risk ratio across all studies of prevalence of mild cognitive impairment in people with hearing loss was 1.44 (random-effects; 95 per cent CI = 1.27–1.64; p < 0.00001; I2 = 0 per cent). Significantly more people with mild cognitive impairment had peripheral hearing loss compared with those without (risk ratio, 1.40 random-effects; 95 per cent CI = 1.10–1.77; p = 0.005; I2 = 0 per cent). When the incidence was studied, significantly more people with peripheral hearing loss had mild cognitive impairment compared with those without (risk ratio = 2.06 random-effects; 95 per cent CI = 1.35–3.15; p = 0.0008; I2 = 97 per cent); however; a high level of statistical heterogeneity was evident.

Most of the studies included in this systematic review observed a significant association between hearing loss and mild cognitive impairment.

Management of head and neck cancer patients provides unique challenges. Palliation serves to optimise quality-of-life by alleviating suffering and maintaining dignity. Prompt recognition and management of suffering is paramount to achieving this. This study aimed to assess perceived confidence, knowledge and adequacy of palliative training among UK-based otolaryngologists.

Eight multiple-choice questions developed by five palliative care consultants via the Delphi method were distributed over five weeks. Knowledge, perceived confidence and palliative exposure among middle-grade and consultant otolaryngologists were assessed, alongside training deficits.

Overall, 145 responses were collated from middle-grade (n = 88, 60.7 per cent) and consultant (n = 57, 39.3 per cent) otolaryngologists. The mean knowledge score was 5 out of 10, with 22.1 per cent (n = 32) stating confidence in palliative management. The overwhelming majority (n = 129, 88.9 per cent) advocated further training.

A broad understanding of palliative care, alongside appropriate specialist involvement, is key in meeting the clinical needs of palliative patients. Curriculum integration of educational modalities such as simulation and online training may optimise palliative care.

Necrotising otitis externa is an aggressive infection of the external ear, which extends to the surrounding bone and soft tissue. In recent years, there has been an apparent increase in the number of patients admitted to our hospital with this condition.

A retrospective review was conducted of all patients admitted to our hospital with necrotising otitis externa between July 2012 and June 2020.

Among 39 patients included, only 9 were diagnosed in the first four years, and 30 were diagnosed in the last four years. There were 27 males and 12 females, and the mean age was 78.7 years. There were six non-diabetic immunocompetent patients. Cranial nerve palsies developed in 50 per cent of the patients. Disease-related mortality was 7.7 per cent. A favourable outcome was recorded in 66.7 per cent of the patients.

Necrotising otitis externa is associated with high morbidity and mortality. The incidence of the disease is rising in our local geographical area.

Retraction pockets are collapsed segments of the tympanic membrane. Their formation is associated with a disruption in middle-ear ventilation pathways, leading to the loss of organised collagen of the tympanic membrane. There are several approaches in treating retraction pockets, which aim either to improve ventilation or repair the retraction pockets themselves.

A review of the literature regarding the classification and associated management of retraction pockets was conducted, using Medline and Cochrane Library databases, with the addition of our institution's experience in undertaking novel techniques.

All the current classification systems fail to guide treatment or prognosticate the disease. Commonly, an initial conservative approach is suggested for early stages, with no clear indication regarding when a surgical solution should be offered. There are conflicting data concerning the effectiveness of these treatments in terms of disease prevention, recurrence and hearing outcomes.

Minimally invasive approaches utilising novel techniques may be key to reducing peri-operative morbidity and improving the overall patient experience.

The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has led to a need for alternative teaching methods in facial plastics. This systematic review aimed to identify facial plastics simulation models, and assess their validity and efficacy as training tools.

Literature searches were performed. The Beckman scale was used for validity. The McGaghie Modified Translational Outcomes of Simulation-Based Mastery Learning score was used to evaluate effectiveness.

Overall, 29 studies were selected. These simulated local skin flaps (n = 9), microtia frameworks (n = 5), pinnaplasty (n = 1), facial nerve anastomosis (n = 1), oculoplastic procedures (n = 5), and endoscopic septoplasty and septorhinoplasty simulators (n = 10). Of these models, 14 were deemed to be high-fidelity, 13 low-fidelity and 2 mixed-fidelity. None of the studies published common outcome measures.

Simulators in facial plastic surgical training are important. These models may have some training benefits, but most could benefit from further assessment of validity.

Modern day otolaryngology has expanded beyond the ear, nose and throat to include head and neck surgery and aesthetic facial procedures. Photographic documentation is important within this expanded horizon. The spectrum of clinical photography includes photomicrographs, endoscopic photographs, peri-operative photography and medical social photography.

This article aimed to review the standard guidelines essential to obtain, store and disseminate photographs and looked at setting up a small clinic with minimal gadgets to suit clinical photography requirements. Elaboration of basic photography techniques in otolaryngology was reviewed, with examples of photographs taken in a clinic by a clinician. Advances and innovation in clinical photography, in the form of smartphone photography, artificial intelligence, device editing and newer hardware and software in otorhinolaryngology was reviewed.

Having a professional photographer to aid a clinician is a luxury. Simple knowledge and regular practice of basic photography guidelines by a clinician is imperative.

This study aimed to summarise the evidence for efficacy of combination treatment of intranasal corticosteroid spray with oxymetazoline hydrochloride nasal spray for chronic rhinitis.

Nine databases were systematically searched from study inception in September 2016 to 1 June 2020. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement was followed.

A total of 130 studies were screened, and 4 randomised controlled trials comprising 838 patients met inclusion criteria. The study found superior improvement of nasal congestion from onset of treatment to completion in intranasal corticosteroid spray and oxymetazoline hydrochloride groups compared with control groups. Intranasal corticosteroid spray and oxymetazoline hydrochloride use resulted in higher nasal volume (standard error of mean 1, 15.8 + 1.1 ml; p < .03) compared with either placebo (12.1 + 0.9 ml) or oxymetazoline hydrochloride (12.4 + 0.8 ml) alone (p = 0.003).

Intranasal corticosteroid spray and oxymetazoline hydrochloride combination treatment may be superior in reducing rhinitis symptoms compared with either intranasal corticosteroid spray or oxymetazoline hydrochloride alone, without inducing rhinitis medicamentosa.

Magnetic resonance imaging utilising non-echo planar diffusion-weighted imaging is known to have high sensitivity and specificity in detecting cholesteatoma.

Data was retrospectively collected from patients who had undergone non-echo planar diffusion-weighted imaging from 1 January 2010 to 31 December 2016. The ratio of average pixel grey-scale values between the middle-ear lesion, pons and temporal lobe was used to quantify the degree of restricted diffusion and assess the statistical significance to detect cholesteatoma.

A total of 107 patients had non-echo planar diffusion-weighted imaging during the study period. Non-echo planar diffusion-weighted imaging shows good specificity and sensitivity with an excellent positive predictive value and accuracy. Analysis of the grey-scale pixel ratio for cholesteatoma detection showed statistically significant results.

Non-echo planar diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging is accurate for cholesteatoma assessment. When the middle-ear lesion non-echo planar diffusion-weighted imaging intensity is higher than the ipsilateral temporal lobe, it is highly suggestive of a cholesteatoma formation.

Radiotherapy is considered a risk factor for pharyngocutaneous fistula after a total laryngectomy. This study aimed to analyse the impact of exclusive radiotherapy versus chemoradiotherapy and the time interval between radiotherapy and surgery on the risk of pharyngocutaneous fistula.

This study was a retrospective revision of 171 patients treated with a total laryngectomy after radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy.

Pharyngocutaneous fistula occurred in 33 patients (19.3 per cent). Patients previously treated with chemoradiotherapy showed a non-significant higher pharyngocutaneous fistula rate compared with patients treated with radiotherapy (25.0 per cent vs 18.0 per cent; p = 0.455). Patients with a pharyngocutaneous fistula after chemoradiotherapy treatment required a surgical repair more frequently than patients treated with radiotherapy (p = 0.005). There were no significant differences in the pharyngocutaneous fistula rate depending on the time interval between radiotherapy and surgery (p = 0.580).

There were no differences in the pharyngocutaneous fistula rate after total laryngectomy depending on the previous treatment with radiotherapy or chemoradiotherapy, or depending on the interval between radiotherapy treatment and surgery.

Lateral temporal bone resections are used in the management of locally advanced peri-auricular cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas, but there is still conflicting evidence regarding the staging, surgical and adjuvant treatment decisions.

A retrospective analysis was performed on all patients who underwent lateral temporal bone resection for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma between January 2015 and December 2019 at a dedicated tertiary oncology referral centre.

Twenty-nine patients were included, with a median age of 77 years. Computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography showed good diagnostic accuracy in identifying disease in the parotid gland, external auditory canal and mastoid bone, but had poor sensitivity in identifying cervical nodal metastasis. Six patients had recurrence at a median of 4.8 months post-operatively. Tumour differentiation (p = 0.0040) and post-operative radiotherapy (p = 0.0199) were associated with significantly better recurrence-free survival.

Lateral temporal bone resection for peri-auricular cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma requires careful surgical planning using clinico-radiological correlation, particularly in patients with poorly differentiated tumours.

The aim of the present study was to perform a retrospective review of the lesion sites in congenital middle-ear cholesteatoma and any accompanying ossicular defects, as well as to explore the possible aetiology of congenital middle-ear cholesteatoma associated with such ossicular chain defects.

The clinical characteristics and pathogenic mechanisms of ossicular chain defects were investigated in 10 patients with early-stage congenital middle-ear cholesteatoma confirmed by surgery, from August 2011 to February 2019.

Monofocal cholesteatoma was located in the anterosuperior quadrant in 3 cases and in the posterosuperior quadrant in 7 cases; all 10 cases showed an absence of the long crus of incus, and 8 cases showed a complete or partial absence of stapes superstructure. The lesions were confined to the vestibular window and the stapes region and had no contact with the long crus of the incus or stapes in nine cases. None of the 10 patients had any recurrence of cholesteatoma.

Although cholesteatoma can cause erosion of ossicles, the present cases suggest that residual epithelium of the cholesteatoma may coexist with ossicular malformations. Therefore, the aetiology of the clinical characteristics in these patients may derive from residual epithelial hinderance of ossicle development.