Nonnative Spartina species (cordgrasses) are widely distributed along the West Coast of North America, but have not invaded all bays with susceptible habitat. We used drift cards to assess the patterns and rates of potential Spartina propagule dispersal by ocean currents from estuaries with significant populations of one or more Spartina species. Cards were released monthly for 1 yr from Willapa Bay, Washington; Humboldt Bay, California; and San Francisco Bay, California; with recovery information reported by volunteers. Recovery rates averaged 37% for all release sites. Cards were commonly recovered close to their bay of release but were repeatedly found hundreds of kilometers both north and south of their release location. Cards most generally traveled northward from the release sites. Cards from Humboldt and Willapa bays were commonly recovered along the British Columbia coast, particularly in the winter. Cards released from Humboldt Bay were found farthest from their release sites. One card from Humboldt Bay traveled 2,800 km to Kodiak Island, Alaska. The timing of seed production, combined with prevailing currents, puts bays currently uninfested by Spartina at risk of repeated propagule loading by ocean currents. A coordinated coast-wide strategy for eradication of all nonnative Spartina will be critical to the success of individual bay-wide eradication efforts.

Understanding seed characteristics and seedling establishment patterns is essential for the development of effective management strategies for invasive annual species. Dittrichia graveolens (stinkwort) has increased its range rapidly within California since 1995, yet its biology is not well understood, which has led to poorly timed management. In this study, seed viability, germination, longevity, and dormancy, as well as seedling emergence characteristics of D. graveolens were evaluated in field, greenhouse, and laboratory experiments in Davis, CA, over a 2-yr period (fall 2010 to summer 2012). In the laboratory, seed germination of D. graveolens occurred at a wide range of constant temperatures (12 to 34 C). Cumulative germination was comparable to total seed viability (80 to 95%) at optimal germination temperatures, indicating that primary (innate) dormancy is likely absent. The base temperature for germination was identified using a thermal time model: 6.5 C and 4 C for 2010 and 2011 seed populations, respectively. In the field, seedlings emerged from fall through spring following precipitation events. A very low percentage of seedlings (2.5%) emerged in the second year after planting. Equivalent seedling emergence was observed over a wide range of light conditions (100, 50, 27, and 9% of available sunlight) in a greenhouse experiment, indicating that seed germination is not limited by high or low light. Results from these seed experiments improve our understanding of the reproductive biology of this rapidly expanding exotic annual and provide valuable information for developing effective timing and longevity of management programs.

Because of economic and environmental constraints, alternatives to chemical management of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) are frequently sought, but adequate nonchemical suppression of this invasive species remains elusive. Combining biological control with other tactics may be an effective approach to suppress Canada thistle, but more information is needed about how environmental conditions affect interspecific interactions. We investigated effects of a biocontrol agent (Hadroplontus litura, a stem-mining weevil) and a potential plant competitor (common sunflower, Helianthus annuus, native annual) on Canada thistle under two soil nutrient regimes in outdoor microcosms. Larval mining damage was relatively light, and weevils negatively impacted only main shoot height and flower number. All measures of Canada thistle performance were reduced when plants were grown with common sunflower or in reduced nutrients, although effects of the latter on root biomass were not significant. Effects of common sunflower and soil nutrients on Canada thistle were generally additive, though a marginally insignificant interaction indicated a trend for greatest flower number with high nutrients and absence of common sunflower. Effects of weevils and common sunflower on Canada thistle were also additive rather than interactive. Although larval damage ratings were significantly greater on plants grown in high-nutrient soil, under our experimental conditions weevils and soil nutrients did not have a significant interactive effect on Canada thistle plants. Our results indicate that H. litura is a relatively weak biological control agent, but when combined with competitive desirable vegetation, some level of Canada thistle suppression may be possible, especially if soil nutrient levels are not highly enriched from agricultural runoff. Assessing the true ecological impacts of Canada thistle infestations may be an important direction for future research.

Previous research showed growth regulator herbicides, such as picloram and aminopyralid, have a sterilizing effect on Japanese brome (Bromus japonicus Thunb.) that can reduce this invasive annual grass's seed production nearly 100%. This suggests growth regulators might be used to control invasive annual grasses by depleting their short-lived seed banks. The goal of this study was to extend the previous Japanese brome research to downy brome (Bromus tectorum L.), the most damaging invasive annual grass of U.S. grasslands. In a greenhouse, we found picloram did not greatly influence downy brome seed production, while point estimates suggest aminopyralid reduced seed production 55 to 80%. If not for a highly abnormal retillering response that we somewhat doubt would occur in the field, point estimates suggest aminopyralid would have reduced downy brome seed production approximately 90% when applied at the heading stage and approximately 98% when applied at three earlier growth stages. Our greenhouse study should encourage field studies designed to further explore the potential for using growth regulators to control downy brome and other invasive annual grasses.

Macartney rose is an aggressive thorny shrub that displaces forage species and hinders cattle grazing in rangelands and pastures of the southern United States. Historically, Macartney rose has proven to be extremely difficult to control even with high rates of soil residual herbicides such as picloram. Recent advances in herbicide chemistry warrant testing on this troublesome species. We compared mowing and late summer broadcast applications of thirteen herbicide treatments that included combinations of aminopyralid, fluroxypyr, metsulfuron, picloram, triclopyr, and 2,4-D. Treatments were applied to the same rose clumps for 2 consecutive yr. An additional mowing was done to one half of the rose clumps in each treatment 6 mo after the second herbicide treatment. At 11 mo after initial treatment (MAIT), mowing and all herbicide treatments performed very poorly and provided 35% control or less. At 12 mo after retreatment (24 MAIT), picloram + 2,4-D and aminopyralid + metsulfuron, both followed by mowing, were the most effective treatments, providing 72 to 91% control. All other treatments provided less than 70% control. However, complete clump mortality was very low across all treatments, ranging from 3 to 32%. These results indicate that Macartney rose suppression is possible with certain new herbicides, but complete clump kill is still lacking.

Buffelgrass is a non-indigenous, invasive, C4 grass that was introduced throughout much of southern Texas, the Southwestern United States, and northern and central Mexico to improve degraded rangelands. The successful introduction and spread of buffelgrass follows a trajectory similar to that of other invasive C4 grasses in arid and semiarid ecosystems. In the Plains of Sonora of the Sonoran Desert (Mexico) buffelgrass is favored by widespread removal of native vegetation and seeding, but, why, following initial introduction, the species persists remains unclear. In this study, we addressed two concerns associated with buffelgrass invasion in the Plains of Sonora. We hypothesized that under arid rangeland conditions, buffelgrass outcompetes native herbaceous species (1) through rapid acquisition of limiting nutrients (here assumed to be nitrogen) and (2) under conditions with high nitrogen input. In summer 2002, a 2 by 2 factorial experiment was established with buffelgrass removal and nitrogen addition in both intact desert and converted buffelgrass grassland habitats. In winter 2003, we found that, regardless of habitat type, buffelgrass removal had a positive effect on abundance, biomass, and richness of native herbaceous species while addition of nitrogen, as urea (at 50 kg N ha−1yr−1 or 9.18 lbs N ac−1yr−1), and disturbance resulted in reduction in abundance and biomass. Nitrogen addition did not negatively alter buffelgrass cover. Nitrogen addition had the expected result of increasing initial, peak and total NO3 and NH4 mineralization with the exception of NO3 measures in intact desert. Removal of buffelgrass did not result in significant increases in soil NO3 or NH4 with the exception of peak NH4 in intact desert. Results of this study support observations that native herbaceous species are displaced by buffelgrass invasion and that nitrogen pollution will likely favor buffelgrass over the native herbaceous species in this ecosystem.

Successful management of downy brome (also known as cheatgrass) requires understanding land managers' perceptions and decisions about whether to invest in its control. We investigated ranchers' and natural resource professionals' (NRPs) perceptions and knowledge about downy brome ecology and its impacts, their current downy brome management practices and satisfaction with those practices, and their information and technical needs using focus groups and a mail survey of ranchers and NRPs in Colorado and Wyoming. Both groups thought downy brome was a problem, and perception of the severity of downy brome corresponded to the level of infestation in the respondent's region. NRPs identified downy brome as a bigger problem than did ranchers from the same area in all but one region. Ranchers were most likely to use early spring grazing to control downy brome, and NRPs were most likely to use seeding, imazapic herbicide, or a combination of methods. Both groups reported that the primary constraint to controlling downy brome was that other weeds were a higher priority. Ranchers and NRPs wanted more information about the control methods they were already likely to use as well as other downy brome control methods. Our findings suggest that (1) listing a species as a noxious weed may provide an important incentive to control it, but trade-offs among control efforts for different species must be carefully considered; (2) managers need to know more about low-cost, low-labor strategies for managing downy brome; and (3) some managers need to be informed about how to identify downy brome, its potential negative effects, and how to prevent its spread. Better quantification of the economic and ecological impacts of downy brome in the Central Rocky Mountains, continued development of effective and economically viable management methods, and improvement in the dissemination of that information to land managers are necessary for successful control of downy brome.

Effective control techniques for pale swallowwort (PSW), an invasive herbaceous vine of old fields and forest understories, are limited. We conducted a 3-yr cutting and herbicide study on an adjacent old-field and forest understory site near Ithaca, NY, for control of PSW. Plants in experimental plots were cut in early July and cut again or sprayed in late August for two seasons with the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate, or one of two rates (low or high) of either triclopyr triethylamine salt (i.e., SL, SH) or triclopyr butoxyethyl ester (EL, EH). The herbicide treatments were effective in reducing PSW cover, plant (stem) density, and aboveground biomass in the old-field site, but in several cases, only after 2 yr of cutting plus herbicide application. Only the cutting plus SH treatment did not reduce PSW cover relative to the unmanaged control in the forest understory and no treatment reduced biomass. In general, the cutting plus EH treatment was most effective in reducing PSW stem densities in the forest site. The most effective herbicide treatments differed between sites. Cutting plus EH reduced PSW cover by 84% and stem density (> 5 cm) by 86% in the old-field site. Cutting plus SH effectively decreased long and short (≤ 5 cm) stem densities by 86 and 96%, respectively. Cutting plants twice during each of two seasons increased PSW cover by 301% and density of stems > 5 cm by 73% at this site. In the forest site, cutting plus glyphosate, or cutting plus EH or cutting plus SL and EL resulted in the greatest reductions in PSW cover (80, 76, 66, and 56%, respectively). Cover in plots cut twice per year decreased by 19%. The EH or SL treatments decreased long-stem densities by 78 and 71%, respectively. The EH treatment decreased short-stem density by 37%. These findings suggest that integrated techniques may control PSW but that effective management strategies may be habitat constrained.

Soil engineering by downy brome may be a facet of its competitiveness. Using rhizotrons in the greenhouse, we compared the growth and plant–soil relationships of downy brome grown in two field soil types: soil invaded for 12 yr by downy brome and a similar soil not yet invaded. For each soil type, downy brome was grown for two growth cycles. At harvest, root mass and soils were sampled at depths of 10, 40, and 80 cm (4, 16, and 32 in); aboveground biomass was also sampled. After the first growth cycle, downy brome grown in invaded soil had 250% greater aboveground biomass and nearly double the root mass per soil volume at 10 cm relative to downy brome grown in noninvaded soil; root mass per volume was similar at depths of 40 and 80 cm. For the second growth cycle, aboveground biomass declined, but was twice greater for downy brome grown in invaded soil; however, root mass per volume was similar between soil types for each depth. Soil attributes that positively related to aboveground biomass included bicarbonate-extractable P, DTPA (diethylentriamene pentaacetate)-extractable Mn, and solution-phase (80-cm depth). We conclude that the data support our hypothesis that downy brome has engineered the soil to increase its growth potential, but proof will require a more robust experimental design. Plant competition is affected by myriad interactions; however, a plant that can increase the availability of soil nutrients for itself and its growth potential, relative to competing plants, would appear to be at an advantage. The mechanistic underpinnings involved are inconclusive, but may involve increased availability of soil N, P, and Mn.

Common reed [Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.] is an invasive plant that reproduces poorly by seed but regenerates vigorously by rhizomes. Because Phragmites australis propagates well through rhizome growth, invasion often occurs from transported rhizome tissue. We investigated both rhizome-fragment biomass and seasonal effects on survival and growth of ramets. Rhizomes were collected along roadside ditches during the fall of 2009 and 2010 and during the summer of 2010 and 2011. Fall and summer were chosen because the plants were either dormant or actively growing, respectively. Rhizomes were cut into fragments then grown in a greenhouse for 60 d in vermiculite with no added nutrients. Rhizomes collected in the fall had a survival rate of 71.1%, whereas only 15.6% of those collected in the summer survived. Within season, rhizomes with low initial biomass had lower survival rates and growth than did large rhizomes. There was no seasonal difference in the total biomass produced by the surviving plants; however, allocation of biomass did differ. Summer-collected rhizomes showed a higher belowground to aboveground biomass ratio than did those collected in the fall. Understanding the viability of Phragmites australis rhizome fragments provides land managers a greater awareness of the high-establishment risks of Phragmites australis. This information should be included in an integrated weed management program, and actions should be taken to reduce the spread of this weed during roadside maintenance. Although the risk of survival is lower during the summer, soil contaminated with Phragmites australis should not be transported or must be sifted with a screen to ensure all rhizome fragments are removed.

Perennial pepperweed is an invasive plant species in North America, native to temperate Eurasia and northern Africa. Effective biological control depends upon correct taxonomic identification. Therefore, we investigated morphological and genetic data (cpDNA sequences and amplified fragment length polymorphisms [AFLP]) in its native range, where the species is at times treated as multiple taxa (L. latifolium, L. affine and L. obtusum). We also analyzed genetic data to determine the number and distribution of haplotypes and genotypes in the invaded range. Using Bayesian analysis, we found three clusters of AFLP genotypes in the native range, but little correlation between these clusters and morphological characters used to distinguish taxa. Also, we found combinations of morphological character states within many native range plants that are incompatible with current species descriptions, offering no support for splitting L. latifolium sensu lato into three species. In North America 97% of the genetic variation was among populations and there were only eight AFLP genotypes in 288 plants, suggesting few introductions or a severe bottleneck, and little or no creation of new genotypes since introduction. We found plants in the native range that are genetically similar (88 to 99%) to six of the eight invasive AFLP genotypes, suggesting that Kazakhstan and China are origins for much of the North American invasion.

Cogongrass [Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.] is a warm-season, rhizomatous grass native to southeast Asia that has invaded thousands of hectares in the southeastern United States. Its negative impacts on pine forests have been well documented, and aggressive control is widely recommended. Although repeated herbicide treatments are effective for suppression, integrated strategies of prescribed burning coupled with herbicide treatment and revegetation are lacking in pine systems. In particular, longleaf pine forests, which are typically open, fire-dependent, communities, are highly susceptible to cogongrass, which is a pyrogenic species. To address management goals for cogongrass control and herbaceous restoration in longleaf pine forests better, field studies were conducted in southwestern Alabama from 2010 to 2012. Two longleaf pine forests with near-monotypic stands of cogongrass in the understory were selected for study. Treatments included combinations of winter prescribed fire, spring and fall glyphosate herbicide treatments, and seeding a mix of native, herbaceous species. Data were collected for three growing seasons following study initiation, and included seasonal herbaceous species cover and final cogongrass shoot and rhizome biomass. Species richness and diversity were calculated and analyzed to ascertain treatment effects over the duration of the study. Burning slightly improved cogongrass control with glyphosate, but had no effect on total cover, species richness, or species diversity. Three glyphosate treatments reduced total vegetative cover and nearly eliminated cogongrass cover, shoot, and rhizome biomass. Glyphosate and glyphosate + seeding also increased herbaceous species richness and diversity. However, aboveground productivity in treated plots was significantly lower than productivity in the untreated control, which was almost exclusively cogongrass. These studies indicate that glyphosate and integrated strategies utilizing glyphosate and seeding are very useful for cogongrass management and increasing herbaceous species richness and diversity in longleaf pine.

Throughout the world, the invasion of nonnative plants is an increasing threat to native biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability. Invasion is especially prevalent in areas affected by land transformation and disturbance. Surface mines are a major land transformation, and thus may promote the establishment and persistence of invasive plant communities. Using the Shale Hills region of Alabama as a case study, we assessed the use of landscape characteristics in predicting the probability of occurrence of six invasive plant species: sericea lespedeza, Japanese honeysuckle, Chinese privet, autumn-olive, royal paulownia, and sawtooth oak. Models were generated for invasive species occurrence using logistic regression and maximum entropy methods. The predicted probabilities of species occurrence were applied to the mined landscape to assess the probable prevalence of each species across the landscape. Japanese honeysuckle had the highest probable prevalence on the landscape (48% of the area), with royal paulownia having the lowest (less than 1%). Overall, 67% of the landscape was predicted to have at least one invasive plant species, with 20% of the landscape predicted to have two or more species, and 3% of the landscape predicted to have three or more species. Japanese honeysuckle, sericea lespedeza, privet, and autumn-olive showed higher occurrence on the reclaimed sites than across the broader region. We found that geospatial modeling of these invasive plants at this scale offered potential for management, both for identifying habitat types at risk and areas that need management attention. However, the most immediate action for reducing the prevalence of invasive plants on reclaimed mines is to remove invasive plants from the reclamation planting list. Three (sericea lespedeza, autumn-olive, and sawtooth oak) out of the six most common invasive plants in this study were planted as part of reclamation activities.

The alien invasive vines black and pale swallowwort are currently spreading across eastern North America, invading parklands, old fields, restored forest sites, and other natural areas. These plants spread by wind-borne seed and can form dense stands where they become established. Although their current geographic ranges overlap, there is little known overlap locally. Preliminary observations and anecdotal information have associated black swallowwort with low-pH inceptisols and pale swallowwort with high-pH alfisols. We conducted a common garden field experiment repeated over two years and a growth chamber germination experiment to assess whether seedling emergence and performance of these two swallowworts are affected by soil type and/or soil pH. Soil pH was artificially modified. In the common garden experiment, plants of both species grown on the Onondaga County soil type (an alfisol) produced a smaller root mass than on the Orange County soil (an inceptisol). Also, in one of two years more seedlings emerged and plants produced more follicles on the Onondaga County soil. Soil pH did not affect seedling emergence, although plants grown on low pH soils had a smaller root dry mass compared with plants grown on higher pH soils. Soil pH effects on stem length, stem dry mass, and follicle production were inconsistent among years. Species differences were also evident, with more pale swallowwort seedlings emerging than black swallowwort seedlings, whereas black swallowwort plants mostly had greater biomass and fecundity than pale swallowwort plants. In the growth chamber experiment, final percentage seed germination was greater on the Onondaga County soil than on the Orange County soil. The germination speed index as well as the probability to reach 50% germination for black swallowwort was higher on the Onondaga County soil than the Orange County soil, but only at lower pH levels. The germination speed index of pale swallowwort on the Orange County soil was higher than black swallowwort at low, but not high, pH levels. In contrast, black swallowwort had a higher probability of reaching 50% germination than pale swallowwort on the Orange County soil at higher pH levels. Contrary to our expectations, interactions between the two swallowwort species with their associated soil type or with their presumably preferred soil pH were weak, contradictory, or non-existent in both experiments. This suggests that these two species can colonize and grow well in a relatively wide range of soil pH conditions. From a management perspective, our results suggest that the current range and local overlap of these two species will continue to increase and that early detection rapid response (EDRR) programs should be established in susceptible regions not yet colonized by these two invasive vines.

Differing life histories contribute to difficulties establishing perennial grasses on lands dominated by exotic annual grasses. In a greenhouse study, we investigated to what extent allowing the perennial grass bluebunch wheatgrass to emerge before the exotic annual grass downy brome would increase its competitive ability and whether modifying nitrogen (N) would affect competition. We conducted an addition-series factorial experiment. In three cohort treatments, the two species were seeded concurrently or bluebunch wheatgrass was at the two- or four-leaf stage when downy brome was planted. N treatments were low (ambient) or high (N added to maintain 10 mg kg−1 [0.1286 oz lb−1]). Larger bluebunch wheatgrass avoided suppression by downy brome regardless of N. Under concurrent sowing, doubling downy brome density decreased bluebunch wheatgrass biomass by 22.6% ± 2.38 SE. In contrast, when bluebunch wheatgrass had a four-leaf size advantage, the same increase in downy brome density decreased bluebunch wheatgrass biomass by 4.14% ± 2.31. Larger bluebunch wheatgrass also suppressed downy brome more effectively, but N enrichment decreased the suppressive ability of bluebunch wheatgrass.

When exotic species invade a region, it becomes important to assess their invasiveness in adjacent uninvaded regions to determine if weed prevention measures are needed. Leafy spurge and knapweed species are absent from the vast majority of eastern Montana, but the region is surrounded by regions heavily invaded by these species. To assess invasiveness of leafy spurge and Russian and spotted knapweed in common eastern Montana grassland sites, I introduced these species to three sites as seeds (120 live seeds plot−1) and seedlings (6 plot−1). I assessed how common grazing regimes influenced invasiveness by imposing cattle, sheep, mixed grazing (i.e., cattle plus sheep), and grazing exclusion treatments for 7 yr. Invader survival did not appear to differ greatly among sheep, cattle, and mixed grazing treatments, but excluding grazing lowered probabilities that plots maintained invaders for the entire study period at two of three sites. At these same sites, grazing exclusion increased growth rates of those invaders that did survive, at least in the case of leafy spurge. Regardless of grazing treatment or site, however, large proportions of plots did not maintain invaders through the end of the study period. At one heavy clay site, only one small leafy spurge plant persisted through the end of the study. In the seventh study year, the plots with the most leafy spurge and Russian knapweed produced 222 and 112 stems, respectively, and the stems remained mostly confined to the 2- by 2-m plots. These findings suggest that, barring intense disturbance, leafy spurge and spotted and Russian knapweed might be incapable of invading some grasslands of eastern Montana, particularly upland sites with high clay content. Any upland sites in the region these species are capable of invading will likely be invaded only very slowly.

Porcelain berry and bushkiller are confamilial, exotic, perennial vines in the Vitaceae family that are considered nuisance/invasive weeds of natural and riparian areas in the eastern United States. To better understand the competitive abilities of these aggressive weeds, greenhouse competition experiments were conducted on cuttings of porcelain berry, bushkiller, and Virginia-creeper, a native member of the Vitaceae family. Plants grown singly or in combination were monitored for stem growth and biomass production. In this research, porcelain berry and Virginia-creeper exhibited similar rates of stem growth, whereas bushkiller grew taller and faster than either of the other species. Porcelain berry stem growth was reduced in competition with bushkiller. All three species exhibited reduced stem biomass when grown with both other species. Root biomass of porcelain berry and Virginia-creeper were not affected by competition, but bushkiller, which produced the heaviest roots, exhibited reduced root biomass when grown with both other species. Porcelain berry root length was reduced by competition with both other species, but neither Virginia-creeper nor bushkiller root lengths were affected by competition. These results indicate that bushkiller is likely the strongest competitor of the three species studied. In these experiments, porcelain berry was less aggressive and vigorous than bushkiller but was similar to Virginia-creeper.

Downy brome is a problematic invasive annual grass throughout western rangeland and has been increasing its abundance, spread, and impacts across Montana during the past several years. In an effort to develop effective management recommendations for control of downy brome on Montana rangeland, we compiled data from 24 trials across the state that investigated efficacy of imazapic (Plateau®, BASF Corporation, Research Triangle Park, NC) applied at various rates and timings and with methylated seed oil (MSO) or a nonionic surfactant (NIS). We ran a mixed-model ANOVA to test for main effects and interactions across application rate (70, 105, 141, 176, and 211 g ai ha−1), application timing (preemergent [PRE], early postemergent [EPOST, one- to two-leaf growth stage], and postemergent [POST, three- to four-leaf growth stage]), and adjuvant (MSO, NIS). Application timing and rate interacted to affect downy brome control (P = 0.0033). PRE imazapic application resulted in the lowest downy brome control (5 to 19%), followed by POST application (25 to 77%) and EPOST application (70 to 95%). Downy brome control remained fairly consistent across rates within application timing. Adjuvant (MSO or NIS) did not affect downy brome control (P = 0.2789). Our data indicate that POST application at 105 to 141 g ai ha−1 provides the most-consistent, short-term control of downy brome. Furthermore, applying imazapic to downy brome seedlings shortly after emergence (one- to two-leaf growth stage) provided better control than applying it to older downy brome seedlings (three- to four-leaf growth stage).

English ivy (Hedera helix) is an evergreen, perennial vine that was introduced from Europe and Asia and is not endemic in much of the United States. English ivy can be invasive and difficult to control once established. Four similar, but not identical, experiments were conducted in sequence to evaluate selected, POST-applied herbicides for English ivy control. English ivy plants were propagated from cuttings and container-grown to obtain a large population of uniform plants. Aminopyralid and fluroxypyr applied at 1.34 and 0.71 kg ae ha−1, which is more twice the maximum registered rate for either herbicide, were ineffective. Glyphosate and 2,4-D amine were generally more effective, but neither herbicide provided a level of control that could be deemed consistently acceptable. Glyphosate applied at 8.51 kg ae ha−1 (the highest rate evaluated) provided 69, 98, and 89% control in the second, third, and fourth experiments as determined by foliage fresh-weight reduction relative to a nontreated control. Treatment with 2,4-D at 5.60 kg ae ha−1 (the highest rate evaluated) controlled English ivy 28, 98, and 89% in the second, third, and fourth experiments, respectively. Mixtures of 2,4-D and glyphosate were generally no more effective than were the components applied alone. Metsulfuron was the most effective herbicide. Metsulfuron applied at 0.168 kg ai ha−1 controlled English ivy ≥ 97% across the three experiments in which this treatment was included. This treatment also prevented regrowth.

Miconia (Miconia calvescens DC.) is a tropical tree species from South and Central America that is a highly invasive colonizer of Hawaii's forested watersheds. Elimination of satellite populations is critical to an effective containment strategy, but extreme topography limits accessibility to remote populations by helicopter operations only. Herbicide Ballistic Technology (HBT) is a novel weed control tool designed to pneumatically deliver encapsulated herbicide projectiles. It is capable of accurately treating miconia satellites within a 30 m range in either horizontal or vertical trajectories. Efficacy was examined for the encapsulated herbicide projectiles, each containing 199.4 mg ae triclopyr, when applied to miconia in 5-unit increments. Experimental calibrations of the HBT platform were recorded on a Hughes 500-D helicopter while conducting surveillance operations from November 2010 through October 2011 on the islands of Maui and Kauai. Search efficiency (min ha−1; n = 13, R2 = 0.933, P< 0.001) and target acquisition rate (plants hr−1, n = 13, R2 = 0.926, P< 0.001) displayed positive linear and logarithmic relationships, respectively, to plant target density. The search efficiency equation estimated target acquisition time at 25.1 sec and a minimum surveillance rate of 67.8 s ha−1 when no targets were detected. The maximum target acquisition rate for the HBT platform was estimated at 143 targets hr−1. An average mortality factor of 0.542 was derived from the product of detection efficacy (0.560) and operational treatment efficacy (0.972) in overlapping buffer areas generated from repeated flight segments (n = 5). This population reduction value was used in simulation models to estimate the expected costs for one- and multi-year satellite population control strategies for qualifying options in cost optimization and risk aversion. This is a first report on the performance of an HBT helicopter platform demonstrating the capability for immediate, rapid-response control of new satellite plant detections, while conducting aerial surveillance of incipient miconia populations.