Arcuate fold-and-thrust belts have been extensively studied in the literature. Less attention, however, has been paid to the characteristics of local-scale arcuate structures, meaning 5–10 km long fold or thrust traces that display map-view curvature. Nevertheless, detailed investigation of small arcuate structures hosted in major arcs can contribute to understanding the pervasiveness of deformation mechanisms. We performed a combined geological and palaeomagnetic study on 21 sites from a c. 60 km2 area in the Northern Apennines in order to analyse minor arcs at a kilometric scale. As evidenced by the geological and structural analysis performed on the 21 sites, the fold axial trend changes from N–S to NW–SE in the study area. The comparison with palaeomagnetic results shows the lack of correlation between vertical axis rotations and fold axial trends. As a consequence, the minor arcuate shapes of thrusts and related folds are interpreted as mostly primary features inherited from the geometry of the palaeomargin, represented by pre-orogenic faults, according to a context of inversion tectonics.

Álvaro et al. (2018) argued that at least six species of Acadoparadoxides described from the lower–middle Cambrian boundary interval successions in the Anti-Atlas of Morocco all belong to Acadoparadoxides mureroensis (Sdzuy, 1958), which was first described from the Iberian Chains, Spain. Their study is based entirely on a morphometric analysis, which ignores the stratigraphic occurrences of particular morphotypes, deformation-related compaction of individual sclerites and their original relief, and thus underestimates some of the earlier described differences between these species. Their synonymization of a number of named Acadoparadoxides species is based on the morphometric approach that they rely on to distinguish between a number of congeneric species. A morphometric approach as applied by Álvaro et al. will lead to an apparent synonymy based on sclerites of similar taxa. Thus, morphometric study must be complemented by an analysis of which morphologically distinctive sclerites (i.e. cranidia and pygidia) are stratigraphically associated, and evaluation of which measurements are more critical to distinguishing sclerites that may represent distinct taxa, and the recognition of related character sets. Apart from demonstrating problems in the conclusion of Álvaro et al., our more inclusive approach of morphologic and stratigraphic analysis works to reassert the diagnostic characters and differences between six earlier named species of Acadoparadoxides. Our conclusions also emphasize the taxonomic problems associated with the identification and morphological variation of A. mureroensis owing to tectonic deformation of its topotype material and to questionable taxonomic assignment of Acadoparadoxides specimens from the Iberian sections.

The Luziyuan Pb–Zn skarn deposit, located in the Baoshan–Narong–Dongzhi block metallogenic belt in SW China, is hosted by marble and slate in the upper Cambrian Shahechang Formation. Three skarn zones have been identified from the surface (1495 m above sea level (asl)) to a depth of 1220 m asl: zone 1 consists of chlorite–actinolite–calcite–quartz, zone 2 of rhodonite–actinolite–fluorite–quartz–calcite, and zone 3 contains garnet–rhodonite–actinolite–fluorite–quartz–calcite. The deposit formed in four distinct mineralization stages: an early anhydrous skarn (garnet, rhodonite and bustamite) stage (Stage 1), a hydrous skarn (actinolite and chlorite) stage (Stage 2), an early quartz (coarse barren quartz veins) stage (Stage 3) and a late sulphide-forming (fine sulphide-bearing quartz veins) stage (Stage 4). The Stage 1 skarn-forming fluid temperature was at least 500 °C according to the geothermometer with rhodonite/bustamite trace elements measured by laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). A decrease in ore fluid temperatures with time is consistent with the decreases in the δ18Ofluid and δDfluid values from Stage 3 to 4. This trend suggests that the ore fluid was mainly derived from magmatic water and mixed with large amounts of meteoric water during mineralization. The δ34S values of Stage 4 chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena are similar to those of an Ordovician gypsum layer, and together with the high-salinity fluids in Stage 4 indicate the dissolution of evaporites in the Luziyuan region. Overall, the results of this study suggest that the Luziyuan deposit is a distal Pb–Zn skarn deposit that formed in response to multi-stage alteration associated with a combination of magmatic water and meteoric water.

The Soltanieh Formation in the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran is not only a key lithostratigraphic unit for reconstruction of the Iranian geological history, but also a globally outstanding succession to reveal variations in seawater composition across the Precambrian–Cambrian (PC–C) transition. Mineralogical and geochemical data from a continuous stratigraphic record of Lower and Upper Shale members of the Soltanieh Formation are used to define their provenance, tectonic setting as well as geochemical variations during the PC–C transition. The Soltanieh mudrocks are composed of quartz and plagioclase, with minor constituents of illite, chlorite and montmorillonite. The chemical index of alteration, A-CN-K (Al2O3 – CaO + Na2O – K2O) relations, index of compositional variability, and Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc ratios indicate low chemical weathering in source areas, compositionally immature and first-cycle sediments. Immobile trace-element ratios and discrimination diagrams, chondrite-normalized rare Earth element (REE) patterns and negative Eu anomaly, along with low total REE abundances and negligible Ce anomalies, demonstrate that the Soltanieh Formation was mainly derived from proximal felsic-intermediate Cadomian magmatic arc sources and deposited in a continental-arc-related basin on the proto-Tethyan active margin of Gondwana. The palaeoredox indicators exhibit a remarkable change in environmental condition from a suboxic to an oxic state across the PC–C transition from the Kahar Formation to the Upper Shale Member of the Soltanieh Formation. Moreover, a significant upwards increase of P, Ba, and Ca is likely associated with enhanced fluxes of nutrient elements during the PC–C transition, coeval with the building of collisional mountain belts during the amalgamation of Gondwana.

Horseshoe crabs are an archetypal chelicerate group with a fossil record extending back to Early Ordovician time. Although extensively studied, the group generally has a low diversity across the Phanerozoic Eonothem. Here, we expand the known diversity of true horseshoe crabs (Xiphosurida) by the description of a new taxon from the Middle Triassic Strelovec Formation of the Slovenian Alps. The mostly complete fossil is preserved as an external mould and assigned to the family Limulidae Zittel, 1881 as Sloveniolimulus rudkini, n. gen., n. sp. The use of landmark and semilandmark geometric morphometrics is explored to corroborate the systematic palaeontology and suggests that the new genus and species are valid. We also provide the first quantitative evidence for the extensive diversity of Triassic horseshoe crabs. We suggest that Triassic horseshoe crabs likely filled many ecological niches left vacant after the end-Permian extinction.

The East African Orogen contains a series of high-strain zones that formed as Gondwana amalgamated. The Tulu Dimtu shear belt is one of these N–S structures within the Barka–Tulu Dimtu zone in western Ethiopia, and contains ultramafic bodies of equivocal origin. Identifying the petrogenetic origin of these enigmatic rocks provides evidence for the geodynamic significance of these shear zones. Owing to their altered state, these ultramafic rocks’ well-preserved chrome spinels provide the only reliable evidence for their source and tectonic affiliation. Chrome spinels have high Cr2O3 (30.04–68.76 wt %), while recalculated Fe2O3 (< 2 %) and TiO2 (0.01–0.51 %) values are low. The Cr# (molar Cr3+/Cr3+ + Al2+) and Mg# (Mg2+/Mg2+ + Fe2+) have averages of 0.88 and 0.22, respectively. Based on olivine–spinel equilibria, the calculated fO2 values (FMQ +3.03) for the dunites reveal a highly oxidized environment. This spinel chemistry (high Cr# > 0.6 and low Ti) supports a supra-subduction origin, with an oxidized mantle source more refractory than depleted MORB mantle (DMM). These spinel compositions indicate that some ultramafic bodies in western Ethiopia, including those from Daleti, Tulu and Dimtu, are serpentinized peridotites emplaced as obducted ophiolite complexes. By contrast, the ultramafic rocks from the Yubdo locality have a different spinel chemistry, with strong affiliation with igneous spinels formed in Alaskan-style mafic intrusions. These collective results suggest that regardless of their origin as supra-subduction ophiolites or as Alaskan-type intrusions, these spinels were formed on a convergent-subduction margin.

The deformation of the Solonker Belt and nearby regions is helpful for understanding the tectonic evolution of the Central Asian Orogenic Belt. This study carried out structural analysis in the Mandula and Ganqi areas of western Inner Mongolia, including the Solonker Belt, the Southern Orogenic Belt and the northern Yinshan Belt (Langshan range). Our results reveal that the Solonker Belt, the Southern Orogenic Belt and the northern Yinshan Belt underwent two stages (D1 and D2) of deformation during the Mesozoic period. The D1 stage produced the NNE-directed thrusts and asymmetric folds, indicating a NNE–SSW contraction. The northern Yinshan Belt, the Southern Orogenic Belt and the Solonker Belt formed as a series of NNE-verging tectonic nappes. The D2 stage developed the NE-trending folds and the SE- or NW-directed thrusts that cross-cut the D1 structures. The two events of nearly orthogonal or oblique shortening gave rise to the superimposed structures (e.g. fold interference patterns). The quartz veins that filled the fractures of the D1 deformation contain zircons of Middle Triassic U–Pb ages. The new dating data, along with the regional sedimentary hiatus, led us to infer that the D1 stage of deformation occurred in Middle Triassic time and the D2 stage occurred in Late Jurassic time. We consider that the D1 stage of deformation resulted from a convergent event, which might be related to the closure of the Palaeo-Asian Ocean or limited, narrow ocean basins; and the D2 stage of deformation was the far-field result of subduction of the Palaeo-Pacific Ocean and the closure of the Mongol-Okhotsk Ocean.

The Turkana Basin of northwestern Kenya is well known for its rich Neogene–Quaternary vertebrate fossil record; however, it also represents one of the few locations in sub-Saharan Africa where Cretaceous vertebrate fossils, including dinosaurs and other archosaurs, are preserved. These Cretaceous deposits are colloquially referred to as the ‘Turkana Grits’, and assumed to be Cretaceous in age based on their limited biostratigraphy. The ‘Turkana Grits’ are overlain by Palaeogene volcanic rocks (<35 Ma), which are widely considered to record the earliest evidence of plume-related volcanism in the East African Rift System. In this study, we present the results of an integrated sedimentary provenance investigation of two units within the ‘Turkana Grits’ called the Lapur and Muruanachok sandstones. Analysis of U–Pb ages and Lu–Hf initial ɛHf(t) values from 1106 detrital zircons demonstrate that sediments are primarily derived from Neoarchaean and Neoproterozoic basement sources, except for six Palaeogene grains from the upper Lapur Sandstone, which are of unknown provenance. Considered together, these data point to the Mozambique Belt, which makes up the nearby rift flanks, as the primary provenance source. This is consistent with palaeocurrent data, and suggests localized sediment input by alluvial fans, which fed into NNW-directed fluvial systems. Perhaps the most surprising finding is the identification of the late Paleocene detrital zircons, which not only demonstrate that the depositional age for the top of the formation is Paleocene rather than Cretaceous, but also provides possible evidence for the oldest Palaeogene volcanic activity within the East African Rift System.

We present a new geological map and new structural, petrographical and geochronological data from the Uppermost Unit of the Cretan nappe pile exposed south of the Dikti Mountains in eastern Crete (Greece). Based on these data, the Uppermost Unit in the study area can be subdivided (from bottom to top) into the Arvi Unit, Theodorii Greenschist and Asterousia Crystalline Complex (ACC)-type rocks. The ACC-type rocks have been affected by polyphase deformation (D1–D3) and metamorphism. Relics of the D1 phase are preserved as internal foliation in garnet porphyroblasts. D2 top-to-the SE shearing under upper amphibolite facies conditions led to the dominant foliation. After post-D2 exhumation, parts of the ACC-type rocks were affected by contact metamorphism of a non-exposed pluton, which intruded at a depth below 10 km during Campanian time (74±2Ma; laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry on zircon). This age, obtained from zircon of chiastolite hornfels, is in line with intrusion ages of ACC-type (meta)granitoids exposed on Crete and on Anafi. The S2-foliation of the ACC-type rocks was reactivated during the late phase of contact metamorphism by D3 top-to-the SE shearing. Latest Cretaceous cross-mica with low silicon content post-dates this shearing event. During middle Paleocene time, the ACC was thrust on top of the Theodorii Greenschist. This thrusting event as well as subsequent brittle thrusting of the greenschists and the ACC-type rocks on top of the prehnite-pumpellyite facies metamorphic Arvi Unit was still accommodated by top-to-the SE kinematics, which is the dominant kinematics of the Uppermost Unit on Crete and on Anafi.

The Makkovik Province of eastern Labrador represents part of an accretionary orogen active during an early stage in the development of the Palaeoproterozoic southern Laurentian continental margin. New Nd isotope data for the eastern Makkovik Province suggest that accreted juvenile Makkovik crust was generated in the Cape Harrison domain during a single crust-forming event at c. 2.0 Ga. Pb isotope data support this model, and show a strong similarity to radiogenic crustal signatures in the juvenile Palaeoproterozoic crust of the Ketilidian mobile belt of southern Greenland. As previously proposed, an arc accretion event at c. 1.9 Ga triggered subduction-zone reversal and the development of an ensialic arc on the composite margin. After the subduction flip, a temporary release of compressive stress at c. 1.87 Ga led to the development of a retro-arc foreland basin on the downloaded Archean continental edge, forming the Aillik Group. Unlike previous models, a second arc is not envisaged. Instead, a compressive regime at c. 1.82 Ga is attributed to continued ensialic arc plutonism on the existing margin. The tectonic model for the Makkovikian orogeny proposed here is similar to that for the Ketilidian orogeny. Major- and trace-element analyses suggest that much of the magmatism in the Makkovik orogen results from post-accretionary ensialic arc activity, and that few vestiges remain of the original accreted volcanic arc. This pattern of arc accretion and intense post-accretion reworking is common to many accretionary orogens, such as the South American Andes and North American Cordillera.

The Upper Famennian (Upper Devonian) Strud locality has yielded very abundant and diversified flora as well as vertebrate and arthropod faunas. The arthropod fauna, mostly recovered from fine shales deposited in a calm, confined floodplain habitat including temporary pools, has delivered a putative insect and various crustaceans including eumalacostracans and notostracan, spinicaudatan and anostracan branchiopods. Here we present the Strud eurypterids, consisting of semi-articulated juvenile specimens assigned to Hardieopteridae recovered from the pool and floodplain deposits, as well as larger isolated fragments of potential adults recovered from stratigraphically lower, coarser dark sandy layers indicative of a higher-energy fluvial environment. The Strud fossils strongly suggest that, as proposed for some Carboniferous eurypterids, juvenile freshwater eurypterids inhabited sheltered nursery pools and migrated to higher-energy river systems as they matured.

As one of the major components of the Himalayan–Tibetan Orogeny, the Lhasa terrane plays a key role in understanding the origin and evolution of this giant orogenic belt and the opening and closure of the Tethys oceans. The eclogite-bearing Sumdo Complex in the central Lhasa terrane was recognized as the main suture of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean between the north and south Lhasa sub-terranes. Despite the eclogite having been studied for a long time, no attempts have been applied to studying the country rocks, causing confusion in understanding the relationship between the eclogite and the adjacent schist. Petrological investigations and phase equilibrium calculations on the garnet-bearing mica schist of the Sumdo Complex have been performed to constrain its metamorphic evolution. The P–T conditions for three metamorphic stages are constrained as P1 (480–500°C, 2.6–2.7 GPa), P2 (580–600°C, 1.3–1.4 GPa) and R (530°C, 0.9 GPa), which represent the prograde, temperature peak and retrograde stages. Two possible P–T paths were constructed, which experienced isothermal decompression (PT1) or heating with a decompression process (PT2), corresponding to the growth and extinction of garnet porphyroblasts in the matrix. The LA-MC-ICP-MS U–Pb dating method yielded a metamorphic age of 229.7±3.5 Ma, which was interpreted as the age of amphibolite-facies metamorphism at c. 600°C, 1.2–1.4 GPa during the closure of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean, resulting in the aggregation of the north and south Lhasa sub-terranes. The close relationship between the eclogite and garnet-bearing mica schist, and their similar P–T–t paths indicate an in situ tectonic evolution rather than tectonic juxtaposition during exhumation.

The Longmu Co–Shuanghu suture zone, which divides the Qiangtang terrane into the northern and southern Qiangtang blocks, is regarded as a key locality in reconstructing the evolutionary history of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean and the break-up of Gondwana. However, although low-temperature – high-pressure metamorphic rocks and ophiolites have been documented within the Longmu Co–Shuanghu suture zone, it remains unclear whether it is an in situ suture zone and represents the relic of the main Palaeo-Tethys Ocean. The uncertainty stems mainly from the limited systematic studies of the provenance, palaeontological evidence and depositional settings of strata on either side of the Longmu Co–Shuanghu suture zone (i.e. northern and southern Qiangtang blocks). Here we report new detrital zircon U–Pb ages and palaeontological data from Lower Carboniferous strata (Riwanchaka Formation) of the northern Qiangtang block, central Tibet. The Riwanchaka Formation contains warm-climate biota with Cathaysian affinities. Provenance analysis reveals that the formation has detrital zircon spectra similar to those from strata of the Yangtze Plate, and it contains a large proportion of zircons with ages (~360 Ma) similar to the timing of synsedimentary magmatic arc activity, implying an active continental margin setting associated with northward subduction of the Palaeo-Tethyan oceanic lithosphere. Conversely, the Carboniferous–Permian strata from the southern Qiangtang block contain cool-water faunas of Gondwanan affinity and exhibit minimum zircon crystallization ages that are markedly older than their depositional ages, suggesting a passive continental margin setting. The differences in provenance, palaeontological assemblages and depositional settings of the Carboniferous to Permian strata either side of the Longmu Co–Shuanghu suture zone indicate the existence of an ancient ocean between the northern and southern Qiangtang blocks. Combining the new findings with previous studies on high-pressure metamorphic rocks, arc magmatism and ophiolites, we support the interpretation that the Longmu Co–Shuanghu suture zone is an in situ suture zone that represents the main suture of the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean.

Late to post-Variscan sedimentary basins of Sardinia were influenced during Pennsylvanian to Permian times by two main tectono-sedimentary cycles: a Pennsylvanian to Cisuralian cycle represented mainly by dark limnic deposits, overlain by a Guadalupian to a possibly Lopingian cycle, mostly characterized by red-bed deposits. Lacustrine waterbodies developed in some sedimentary basins that were filled with siliciclastic to frequently early silicified carbonate deposits, depending on the climate and environmental conditions, landscape morphology and tectonic regime. The limnic successions of the lower tectono-sedimentary cycle were deposited in permanent, tens of metres deep lakes in deep, narrow tectonic strike-slip basins under a temperate to warm-humid climate. They started as lakes with terrigenous sedimentary input and developed minor carbonate deposits mainly at the end of their story. Conversely, the red-bed successions of the upper cycle were deposited in ephemeral, shallow playa lakes related to wider basins in an extensive alluvial plain under a hot and arid climate. Here, the siliciclastic sediments are intercalated with thin carbonate beds that are typical of a high evaporation rate. The evolution of the lake type could be related not only to a major climatic shift, but also to the changing morphotectonic conditions of the Variscan chain influencing the local microclimate. Comparisons with coeval successions in the Provence Basin, the Massif Central Aumance basin (France) and the Saar–Nahe Basin (Germany) show both similarities and differences between the basins.

The Bengbu area in the southeastern North China Craton (NCC) consists predominantly of Archean–Palaeoproterozoic (gneissic) granitoids with minor supracrustal rocks (the Fengyang and Wuhe groups). This study presents new zircon laser ablation – inductively coupled plasma – mass spectrometry U–Pb and Lu–Hf isotopic data and trace-element contents for these granitoids, which improve understanding the Archean–Palaeoproterozoic crustal evolution of the NCC. Magmatic zircon U–Pb data reveal that zircons in the (gneissic) granitoids were generated by multi-stage events at 2.93, 2.73, 2.53–2.52 and 2.18–2.13 Ga. Metamorphic zircon U–Pb data obtained from these rocks show two distinct metamorphic ages of 2.49–2.52 and 1.84 Ga, suggesting that the Bengbu area experienced a regional metamorphic event at the end of the Neoarchean Era and encountered reworking by a tectonothermal event associated with the formation of the Palaeoproterozoic Jiao-Liao-Ji Belt. Trace-element compositions of magmatic zircons reveal the highest Ti concentrations (8.08±3.38 ppm) and growth temperatures (718±44 °C) for the zircons aged 2.13–2.17 Ga and an increase in zircon U/Yb ratios from 2.93 Ga (0.34±0.12) through 2.73 Ga (0.96±0.42) to 2.53 Ga (1.05±0.46), but an evident decrease at 2.17–2.13 Ga (0.61±0.40 ppm). Similar Palaeoarchean xenocrystic and detrital zircons with negative ɛHf(t) values, late Mesoarchean magmatic zircons with juvenile Hf isotopic features, early Neoarchean magmatic zircons with model ages of 2.9–3.0 Ga, and two regional metamorphic events at 2.52–2.48 and 1.88–1.80 Ga in the Bengbu and Jiaobei areas indicate a Palaeoarchean–Mesoarchean micro-continent entrained in the Jiao-Liao-Ji Belt at the southeastern NCC.

We report three Palaeozoic sedimentary successions in northeastern South China that display markedly different tectonostratigraphic characteristics: the Jiangshan section exhibits an angular unconformity between the Upper Ordovician and Carboniferous stratra; the Shuangming section exhibits a disconformity between the lower Silurian and Upper Devonian strata; and the Xinqiao section exhibits a disconformity between the upper Silurian and Upper Devonian strata. The Shuangming and Xinqiao sections are interpreted to represent the remnant Nanhua foreland basin, whereas the Jiangshan section is in the fold-and-thrust zone of the Wuyi-Yunkai orogen. The Lizhu-Changshan thrust fault in between is interpreted to be the frontal thrust and the boundary of the orogen. Detrital provenance analysis of the Ordovician–Devonian sandstones from the Shuangming and Xinqiao sections shows that the Ordovician–Silurian, mid- to late-orogenic sandstones contain dominantly 860–780 Ma zircon populations and subordinate 2.5 Ga, 1.89–1.78 Ga, 980–950 Ma, 630–540 Ma and 430 Ma populations, indicating nearby sources including the early Neoproterozoic Sibao orogen, inverted Neoproterozoic rift basins and related plutons, recycled Ediacaran–Cambrian strata and, increasing with time, exposed Cathaysia basement and minor syn- to late-orogenic plutonic intrusions. The Devonian post-orogenic sandstones exhibit a dominant 440 Ma population with minor 2.5 Ga, 1.89–1.78 Ga, 860–780 Ma and 630–540 Ma populations, suggesting a dominant contribution from now widely exposed, mid- to late-orogenic plutonic intrusions (with or without contributions from rare volcanism of similar ages) in a residual topographic high SE of the Lizhu-Changshan fault. This residual topographic high of the Wuyi-Yunkai orogen had completely perished by early Carboniferous time, c. 60Myr after the end of the orogenic event.

The Middle Shale Member of the Amdeh Formation is interpreted to be of Early Ordovician age based on its trace fossils, stratigraphic context and a newly discovered fauna of conodonts. The member abruptly overlies the Lower Quartzite Member, which may be Early Cambrian, and passes gradationally-upward into the Upper Quartzite Member, which is probably Early–Middle Ordovician. The 542.5 m thick Middle Shale Member can be divided into two parts: a shaly lower part, and a sandy upper part that contains an influx of heavy minerals. Bioturbation by marine trace fossils is one of the most obvious characteristics of the member. The shales and sandstones are interpreted to be of Cruziana and Skolithos ichnofacies and represent shallow-marine shelf, shoreface, beach and coastal deposits. Sparse shelly fossils occur in the sandy upper part, principally bivalves, inarticulate brachiopods, ostracods and conodonts. The small assemblage of conodonts includes elements interpreted to be Tremadocian (Tetraprioniodus, Drepanoistodus, Drepanodus, Scolopodus, ?Tropodus, Semiacontiodus and Teridontus), and others which may be Floian or ancestral forms of Floian taxa (Balognathidae gen. et sp. indet. A & B and aff. Erraticodon). No acritarchs have been recovered, probably due to high temperatures experienced during burial to >6 km. It is likely that the Middle Shale Member is the seaward equivalent of the Mabrouk and Barakat formations, and an outcrop gamma-ray log supports such a correlation. The trace fossils, sedimentology, conodont fauna and the general lack of macrofossils are in keeping with the regional Tremadocian–Floian of the Arabian margin of Gondwana.

A half-century has passed since the dawning of the plate tectonic revolution, and yet, with rare exception, palaeogeographic models of pre-Jurassic time are still constructed in a way more akin to Wegener's paradigm of continental drift. Historically, this was due to a series of problems – the near-complete absence of in situ oceanic lithosphere older than 200 Ma, a fragmentary history of the latitudinal drift of continents, unconstrained longitudes, unsettled geodynamic concepts and a lack of efficient plate modelling tools – which together precluded the construction of plate tectonic models. But over the course of the last five decades strategies have been developed to overcome these problems, and the first plate model for pre-Jurassic time was presented in 2002. Following on that pioneering work, but with a number of significant improvements (most notably longitude control), we here provide a recipe for the construction of full-plate models (including oceanic lithosphere) for pre-Jurassic time. In brief, our workflow begins with the erection of a traditional (or ‘Wegenerian’) continental rotation model, but then employs basic plate tectonic principles and continental geology to enable reconstruction of former plate boundaries, and thus the resurrection of lost oceanic lithosphere. Full-plate models can yield a range of testable predictions that can be used to critically evaluate them, but also novel information regarding long-term processes that we have few (or no) alternative means of investigating, thus providing exceptionally fertile ground for new exploration and discovery.

The Ordovician to Middle Devonian Prague Basin, Bohemian Massif, represents the shallowest crust of the Variscan orogen corresponding to c. 1–4 km palaeodepth. The basin was inverted and multiply deformed during the Late Devonian to early Carboniferous Variscan orogeny, and its structural inventory provides an intriguing record of complex geodynamic processes that led to growth and collapse of a Tibetan-type orogenic plateau. The northeastern part of the Prague Basin is a simple syncline cross-cut by reverse/thrust faults and represents a doubly vergent compressional fan accommodating c. 10–19 % ~NW–SE shortening, only minor syncline axis-parallel extension and significant crustal thickening. The compressional structures were locally overprinted by vertical shortening, kinematically compatible with ductile normal shear zones that exhumed deep crust in the orogen's interior at c. 346–337 Ma. On a larger scale, the deformation history of the Prague Syncline is consistent with building significant palaeoelevation during Variscan plate convergence. Based on a synthesis of finite deformation parameters observed across the upper crust in the centre of the Bohemian Massif, we argue for a differentiated within-plateau palaeotopography consisting of domains of local thickening alternating with topographic depressions over lateral extrusion zones. The plateau growth, involving such complex three-dimensional internal deformations, was terminated by its collapse driven by multiple interlinked processes including gravity, voluminous magma emplacement and thermal softening in the hinterland, and far-field plate-boundary forces resulting from the relative dextral motion of Gondwana and Laurussia.

Data from offshore oil and gas explorations have revealed that mud diapirs occur widely not only at continental margins but also in foreland basins and may have played an important role in the entrapment of oil and gas. Although the structural features and formation mechanism of salt diapirs have been extensively investigated, mud diapirs are still not fully understood, largely due to the difficulty of identifying them from seismic data. In this paper, the structural features and main controlling factors of mud diapirs in the Andaman Sea Basin are investigated based on seismic profiles combined with drilling data and regional tectonic settings. The results show that there are five types of mud diapir in the Andaman Sea Basin: turtleback mud diapir, mud dome, piercing mud diapir, mud volcano and gas chimney-like mud diapir. Turtleback mud diapirs mainly occur in the southern segment of the accretionary wedge of the Andaman Sea Basin, which is far from the Bengal Fan and characterized by low deposition rate and strong compression tectonic setting. Piercing mud diapirs exist mainly in the central segment of the accretionary wedge, which is close to provenances of sediments and characterized by rapid sedimentation rates, large mudstone thickness and transpressional tectonic setting. Mud domes and mud volcanoes mainly occur in the northern segment of the accretionary wedge, which is characterized by rapid sedimentation rates, large mudstone thickness and sedimentary wedge growth tectonic setting. The gas chimney-like mud diapirs only occur in the northern segment of the back-arc depression close to the Sagaing strike-slip fault belt, which is characterized by high deposition rate, large mudstone thickness and high geothermal gradient. These features suggest that thick mudstone deposit, rapid sedimentation rates, large geothermal gradient, strong tectonic stress and gravitational spreading and sliding may have prompted the formation of mud diapirs in the Andaman Sea Basin.