Eight species of Tribolium and the related species Alphitobius diaperinus have been microdensitometrically analysed by measuring the nuclear content (1C value) of their Feuigenstained spermatids. The range of mean genome sizes goes from 0·157 pg in T. audax to 0·388 pg in T. brevicornis, including five significantly different groups of values. Also, in ail but one species of Tribolium significant intraspecific heterogeneity of genome size was found. The resemblances in genome size are not generally correlated with genetic homologies among species, but there is a highly significant correlation between genome size and spermatid size.

Thymine requiring strains of Escherichia coli suppress nonsense and frameshift mutations during translation. Strains with different genetic backgrounds exhibited different nonsense suppression spectra and showed differences in the apparent suppression efficiency. Part of this strain difference is due to a presumably novel gene (tsmA) mapping near 39 min. This gene affects the spectrum and apparent efficiency of suppression, and appears to affect the utilization of thymidine.

Geographic variation was studied at 15 electrophoretic loci (40 alleles) in Italian populations of Ornithogalum montanum Cyr. ex Ten. (Liliaceae). Homogeneity of allele frequencies was assessed by G tests; gene-frequency patterns were described by spatial autocorrelation statistics; matrices of genetic and environmental distance were compared through a series of Mantel's tests, and the zones of highest overall gene-frequency change per unit distance (steep multi-locus clines, or genetic boundaries) were identified. Nineteen allele frequencies appear heterogeneously distributed, but only 3 of them show significant spatial structure. Only 2 allele frequencies are correlated with 1 environmental parameter. Large genetic differences are observed between spatially close populations. These findings support a model of differentiation in which the genetic relationships between isolates do not depend on their spatial distances, but reflect mainly population subdivision and restricted gene flow.

Nucleic acids fractions were isolated from pre-Columbian maize seeds and characterized using different approaches such as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, anti-DNA antibody binding, HPLC fractionation, molecular hybridization with cloned genes, and DNA amplification by the polymerase chain reaction. The nucleic acids were found to be very depolymerized (≤140 base pairs in length) and composed mainly of ribosomal RNA. Despite the very low amount and degree of polymerization of seed DNA, specific maize nuclear Mul, Mu4, Mu8 and, possibly, Mu5 element components could be detected, thanks to the use of amplification systems as short as 90 bp. The results suggest that evaluation of the relative proportions of Mu-type element components and, possibly, other maize genomic components in single mummified kernels, may offer a new key to the study of ancient maize populations.

One means of examining the evolutionary significance of molecular variation on the Y chromosome is to identify phenotypes specifically affected by Y-linked genes, and to quantify the phenotypic variation and its correlation to the molecular variation. The functional importance of the Y-linked array of rRNA genes is demonstrated by the ability of Y chromosome to rescue X-linked bobbed lethal alleles, whose lethality is seen in homozygous females. Because low numbers of X-linked rDNA gene copies result in increased developmental time and shortened bristles, and because there is considerable natural variation in Y-linked copy number, a careful examination of Y-linked variation in these two traits may uncover a mode of selection acting on the multigene family. In this study, 36 Y-chromosome replacement lines were tested to detect subtle variation in bristle phenotypes and developmental rates. Correlations among these traits, rDNA gene copy number, and intergenic sequence length were quantified. The absence of significant correlations between phenotypic characters and rDNA copy number or intergenic sequence length suggests that the extant molecular variation in Y-linked rDNA can have at most very small selective effects.

A new allele of one of the metallothionein genes of D. melanogaster, Mtn•3, sheds light on the recent evolution of this gene. In comparison to the previously studied Mtnl allele found in Canton S, this new allele, Mtn•3, produces a transcript that is 49 bases longer and 65–70 % less abundant. We detected Mtn•3 in several laboratory strains as well as in isofemale lines derived from natural populations. Sequence comparison showed that Mtn•3 differs from Mtnl in that it has: (a) base-pair substitution and an extra 49 bp-segment in the 3' untranslated region, (b) a substitution in the coding region that replaces the terminal Glu40 in Mtnl with Lys40, and (c) two base-pair substitutions in the promoter region. The Mtn•3-type was detected in six species of the melanogaster group by restriction analysis, and this result was confirmed by sequencing the D. simulans Mtn gene. Thus Mtn•3, which produces a less abundant transcript, appears to be the oldest of the two alleles. We also found that the duplications previously isolated from natural populations all derived from Mtnl, the more recent allele. Thus, two evolutionary steps: Mtn•3 to Mtnl and Mtnl to Dp(Mtnl), are accompanied by an overall 5- to 6-fold increase of RNA accumulation. The two changes seem to have occurred in non-African populations since Mtn•3 but not Mtnl was detected in our sample from tropical Africa, while Mtnl and Dp (Mtnl) are prevalent in European and North American samples.

Female interspecific vole hybrids were examined for the expression of the G6PD and GALA genes on the X chromosomes. When one of the parents was a species with a heterochromatin block on the X, and the other parent was M. arvalis, without a heterochromatin block on the X, preferential expression of the genes of the M. arvalis X was consistently observed. When both parental species had heterochromatin on the X, the parental forms of G6PD and GALA were in about equal proportions in the hybrid females. The results of the cytological identification of the active and inactive X on the metaphase spreads in the hybrid females are in agreement with the biochemical results. It is suggested that the observed phenomenon may be due to a nonrandom inactivation of the X chromosome containing a heterochromatin block in crosses involving M. arvalis and by a random inactivation in those with both parents having heterochromatin blocks on the X chromosomes. These results support our previous suggestion that heterochromatin has an effect on X inactivation in female interspecific vole hybrids.

X-rays and deficiencies in DNA repair had a synergistic effect on genetic damage associated with P-element mobility in Drosophila melanogaster. These interactions, using sterility and fecundity as endpoints, were tested in dysgenic males deficient in either excision or post-replication DNA repair. Three sublines of the Harwich P strain were used for the construction of hybrid males. These sublines differ in P-induction ability based on gonadal dysgenesis sterility (GD) and snw mutability tests, in P-element insertion site pattern, and in the types of defective P-elements, such as KP elements, they possess. A lower degree of gonadal dysgenesis was correlated with the presence of KP elements. GD sterility and snw mutability were not always correlated. Dysgenic hybrids originating from the standard reference subline, Harwichwhite, were much more sensitive to the post-replication repair than the excision repair defect. In contrast, sterility of hybrids derived from the weak subline was least affected by, and that of hybrids of the strongest subline was most affected by either DNA repair deficiency. The exacerbation by X-rays of the effects of DNA repair deficiencies on genetic damage indicates that both repair mechanisms are required for processing DNA lesions induced by the combined effect of P activity and ionizing radiation.

To study the effect of mutagenic/carcinogenic agents on P-element transposition, the P strains used should be denned, especially with respect to the number of intact and functional P elements present. In this investigation, the relation between the number of complete P elements present in dysgenic males and P-insertion mutagenesis was studied in several MR (P) strains. The main conclusions from this investigation are: (1) Complete P elements can be present in the genome without genetic activity (even in a ‘dysgenic’ cross). As a consequence, the number of complete P elements present in particular dysgenic flies, is not necessarily an indication of their dysgenic genetic activity. (2) The MR-h12/Cy strain carries two complete P elements, one on the X chromosome without and one on the MR chromosome with genetic activity (making this strain most suitable for studies on P-transposition mechanisms).

Genomic patterns of occurrence of the transposable element hobo are polymorphic in the sibling species Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Most tested strains of both species have apparently complete (3·0 kb) and smaller hobo elements (H lines), but in both species some strains completely lack such canonical hobo elements (E lines). The occurrence of H and E lines in D. simulans as well as in D. melanogaster implies that an hypothesis of recent introduction in the latter species is inadequate to explain the phylogenetic occurrence of hobo. Particular internally deleted elements, the approximately 1·5 kb Th1 and Th2 elements, are abundant in many lines of D. melanogaster, and an analogous 1·1 kb internally deleted element, h del sim, is abundant in most lines of D. simulans. Besides the canonical hobo sequences, both species (and their sibling species D. sechellia and D. mauritiana) have many hobo-hybridizing sequences per genome that do not appear to be closely related to the canonical hobo sequence.

An electrophoretic survey of concentrations of lysozymes M and P was carried out with seven species in the house mouse group (spretus, hortulanus, abbotti, musculus, castaneus, domesticus and molossinus). In most species M is the predominant lysozyme in all tissues tested, except the small intestine, where P predominates if present. In inbred strains of molossinus mice P is more abundant than M in all tissues tested. The phenotypes of high expression of P lysozyme and low expression of M lysozyme in peritoneal and alveolar macrophages were examined genetically. Results of interspecific crosses and backcrosses to domesticus mice support the model that the phenotypes are caused by mutation(s) tightly linked to the lysozyme locus. Alleles at the regulatory loci show additive inheritance.

A cDNA containing the nearly complete coding sequence of CK-III subunit of X. laevis was isolated, sequenced and further identified by comparing the tissue distribution of CK-III/III isozyme with that of its messenger. Comparison of CK-III deduced amino acid sequence with other CK sequences published reveals its close homology to M-CK subunits. Results using both cDNA probes and monoclonal antibodies specific for CK-III subunits indicate that the appearance and the accumulation of CK-III occur in parallel with myoblast differentiation. Moreover, subcellular immuno-histolocalization shows that CK-III/III isozyme is especially concentrated on larval myofibres at the level of A-bands.

We describe the use of DNA reassociation kinetics to determine the total genome size and complexity together with the individual complexity and copy number of the single copy, middle repetitive and highly repeated DNA fractions of cell line and larval DNA from the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. The genome of Ae. aegypti is both large and complex, being one third the size of the human genome, and exhibits a short period interspersed repeat pattern. The implications of patterns of sequence arrangement and genome complexities for experiments aimed at isolating specific classes of DNA sequences, such as mobile genetic elements, are discussed.

Two new X-autosome Robertsonian (Rb) translocations, Rb(X.9)6H and Rb(X.12)7H, were found during the course of breeding the Rb(X.2)2Ad rearrangement at Harwell. The influence of these new Rbs on meiotic chromosome segregation was investigated in hemizygous males and heterozygous females and compared to that of Rb(X. 2)2Ad. Screening of metaphase II spermatocytes gave incidences of sex chromosome aneuploidy of 9·2% in Rb(X. 2)6H/Y and 9·6% in Rb(X.9)2Ad/Y males; no metaphase II cells were present in the testes of the Rb(X. 12)7H/Y males examined and no males with this karyotype have so far proved fertile. In breeding tests, 5% of the progeny of Rb(X.2)2Ad/Y males were sex chromosome aneuploids compared to 10% of the Rb(X. 9)6H/Y offspring. The difference was not significant, however. Cytogenetic analyses of metaphase II stage oocytes showed elevated rates of hyperhaploidy (n + l) in Rb heterozygous females over chromosomally normal mice: 4·2% for Rb(X.2)2Ad/+; 2·1% for Rb(X.9)6H/+; 2·2% for Rb(X.12)7H/+ and 1·1% for normal females. There was, however, no statistically significant difference in the rates of hyperhaploidy between the three different Rb types, nor overall between Rb/ + and normal females. Karyotypic analyses of liveborn offspring of Rb heterozygous females revealed low incidences of X0 animals but no other type of sex chromosome aneuploidy. Intercrosses of heterozygous females and hemizygous males yielded 5·5% aneuploidy for Rb(X.2)2Ad and 5·4% for Rb(X.9)6H. In heterozygous females, there was evidence from the metaphase II and breeding test data for all three rearrangements, of preferential segregation of the Rb metacentric to the polar body resulting in a deficiency of cells and progeny carrying a translocation chromosome.

The flux through the de novo fatty acid synthesis pathway was estimated in lines of mice which differed substantially in fat content following 26 generations of selection at 10 weeks of age. Previous estimates of lipogenic enzyme activities had indicated an increase in the capacity for lipogenesis in the Fat compared to the Lean line. Therefore the in vivo flux in lipogenesis was measured in both liver and gonadal fat pad (GFP) tissues of males at 5 and 10 weeks of age, using the rat of incorporation of 3H from 3H2O and 14C from acetate and citra te into total lipids. AT both ages and in both tissues the Fat line had a higher flux, about 20% increase in the liver and up to three-fold increase (range 1·2- to 3·4-fold) in the GFP. We conclude that direct selection for fatness in mice has resulted in metabolic changes in the ratio of de novo fatty acid synthesis, and that the changes are largely detectable before 10 weeks, the age of selection.

Progeny from one intra- and two inter-specific backcrosses between divergent strains of mice were typed to map multiple markers in relation to two pigment mutations on mouse chromosome 13, beige (bg) and pearl (pe). Both recessive mutants on a C57BL/6J background were crossed separately with laboratory strain PAC (M. domesticus) and the partially inbred M. musculus stock PWK. The intra- and inter-specific F1 hybrids were backcrossed to the C57BL/6J parental strain and DNA was prepared from progeny. Restriction fragment length polymorphisms were used to follow the segregation of alleles in the backcross offspring at loci identified with molecular probes. The linkage analysis defines the association between the bg and pe loci and the loci for the T-cell receptor γ-chain gene (Tcrg), the spermatocyte specific histone gene (Hist 1), the prolactin gene (Prl), the Friend murine leukaemia virus integration site 1 (Fim-1), the murine Hanukuh Factor gene (Muhf/Ctla-3) and the dihydrofolate reductase gene (Dhfr). This data confirms results of prior chromosomal mapping studies utilizing bg as an anchor locus, and provides previously unreported information defining the localization of the prolactin gene on mouse chromosome 13. The relationship of multiple loci in relation to pe is similarly defined. These results may help facilitate localization of the genes responsible for two human syndromes homologous with bg and pe, Chediak–Higashi syndrome and Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome.

Nine enzyme activity variants and one charge variant of liver/erythrocyte pyruvate kinase have been found amongst laboratory and wild mice. Four of the enzyme activity variants were previously reported to be caused by allelic differences in the structural gene, Pk-ls. Analysis of two putative regulatory gene mutations is now reported, both of which map at, or close to, the structural gene on chromosome 3. One of these mutations, in the inbred strain SWR, is tissue specific, affecting enzyme concentration in the liver but not the erythrocyte the other, which arose in a mutation experiment, doubles the enzyme concentration in both tissues. The organization and the nomenclature in the [Pk-1] gene complex are discussed and are compared with the organization of other comprehensively analysed gene complexes in the mouse.

Fixation probabilities and mean times to fixation of new mutant alleles in an isogenic population having an effect on a quantitative trait under truncation selection were computed using stochastic simulation. A variety of population structures and breeding systems were studied in order to find an optimal design for maximizing the fixation probability for recessive genes without impairing that for non-recessives or delaying times to fixation. Circular mating or cycles with repeated generations of close inbreeding alternating with combination of the families proved to be very inefficient. The most successful scheme found, considering fixation probabilities and times to fixation jointly, was to practise individual selection and mate full sibs whenever possible, otherwise mate at random. The benefit was directly proportional to the number of full-sib matings performed, which, in turn, almost exclusively depended on the number of selected individuals with very little effect of selection intensity or magnitude of gene effects. Fixation rates could be well approximated by diffusion methods. When selection was practised in only one sex and, therefore, the proportion of full-sib matings could be varied from zero to one, maximizing the amount of full-sib mating was found to maximize fixation probability, at least for single mutants.

The fixation probability of a mutant in a subdivided population with spatially varying environments is investigated using a finite island model. This probability is different from that in a panmictic population if selection is intermediate to strong and migration is weak. An approximation is used to compute the fixation probability when migration among subpopulations is very weak. By numerically solving the two-dimensional partial differential equation for the fixation probability in the two subpopulation case, the approximation was shown to give fairly accurate values. With this approximation, we show in the case of two subpopulations that the fixation probability in subdivided populations is greater than that in panmictic populations mostly. The increase is most pronounced when the mutant is selected for in one subpopulation and is selected against in the other subpopulation. Also it is shown that when there are two types of environments, further subdivision of subpopulations does not cause much change of the fixation probability in the no dominance case unless the product of the selection coefficient and the local population size is less than one. With dominance, the effect of subdivision becomes more complex.