Introduction. A comparative study of antinutrients and heavy metals in the peels of five improved varieties of plantain and banana hybrids was investigated. Our aim was to provide information on plantain and banana peels that may circumvent huge losses during fruit processing by converting waste into wealth and health. Materials and methods. Four new plantain hybrids developed at the IITA, Nigeria, named PITA 14, PITA 17, PITA 24 and PITA 26, one cooking banana hybrid (BITA 3) and an African plantain landrace, Agbagba, were investigated. Antinutrient and heavy metal contents of the dried peels from the different cultivars were determined and the data were statistically analyzed. Results and discussion. The plantain hybrid PITA 14 differed significantly from other cultivars in saponin, tannin and oxalate. A significant difference was observed between PITA 17 in phytate compared with other cultivars. Cyanogenic glucosides found in PITA 17, PITA 26 and BITA 3 differed significantly from the values obtained in other cultivars. Both BITA 3 and Agbagba are significantly different from other cultivars in phenolic content, while PITA 24 and Agbagba differed significantly from other cultivars in lead. PITA 24 peels differed significantly from other cultivars in cadmium, but no significant difference was found among the different Musa varieties in mercury. Conclusion. In spite of the antinutritional properties ascribed to the various constituents investigated, the levels found in the peels of new Musa hybrids suggest that new varieties might not constitute a health hazard when ingested. Plantain and banana peels may be converted into livestock feeds, which will eventually provide protein and other nutrients to humans from consumption of meat and other products derived from the animals.

Introduction. Conventional evaluation of Musa through multilocation trials has often been carried out to ascertain the yield stability and ecological range of new varieties but, for prospective growers, it is equally important to know the fruit characteristics and ripening pattern of the genotypes. Indeed, fruit characteristics determine consumers’ attitudes towards the new varieties, and the associated market value of these varieties. Materials and methods. The metric traits and ripening pattern of fruits from nine Musa hybrids and one local variety of plantain were evaluated during two cropping seasons in a sub-humid environment in Nigeria. Results. All the traits measured varied with the genotype, but cropping cycle influenced only fruit weight and days to complete senescence of fruits. The interaction between genotype and cropping cycle was significant on fruit weight, fruit length and days to attain four different ripening stages. Most genotypes had better values in the ratoon harvest than in the plant crop. Fruit length and shape of PITA 21 were comparable with those of the local check, but the index of edible proportion was highest in PITA 22. PITA 21 and PITA 26 had the longest green life and total shelf life. Conclusion. The genotypes evaluated in our study revealed different utilization potentials. Also, the better postharvest life of some of the hybrids and comparable metric traits with the local check suggested the high adoption potential of the hybrids.

Introduction. In Mexico, the Myrtillocactus fruit production levels are substantial, yet fruits are often under-used. Although the focus of interest is on their potential as food colourings, the fruits deserve more attention for their other food properties but information on their physico-chemical composition is scarce. To offer a baseline for the development of Myrtillocactus cultivation, we reviewed the information so far available. Botanical description. Four Myrtillocactus species have been identified and reported in the literature. They differ in shape, colour and other phenotypic characteristics. In Mexico, the predominant species is M. geometrizans, but M. schenckii also grows abundantly throughout the arid and semi-arid lands of the country. Cytological analyses performed on M. geometrizans showed that the plant is diploid (2n = 22). Agronomic aspects. Myrtillocactus species belong to the Cactaceae family. Because of their Crassulacean acid metabolism, they are able to grow in the arid and semi-arid highlands of Mexico. Myrtillocactus species have been propagated asexually by explants or cloning. Under controlled conditions, in vitro micropropagation from apical and basal explants gives rise to high yields. For cultivation, attention should be paid especially to minimum winter temperatures. Description of fruits and biochemical characterisation. The edible fruit is globular, with diameters reaching 1.5 cm. The pulp is gel-like, ranging in colour from glowing red to bluish. Chemical characterisation has mainly focused on betalain compounds, the predominant ones of which are betanin and betaxanthins. Contents are reported to be about 2.3 mg betalain·100 g–1of pulp. Colour appears to be more stable than for red beets. Human consumption and commercial importance. In the production season (June to September), the fruits are found in all public markets in the states where they are grown. They are eaten either fresh or in processed forms. The commercialisation of the fruit is restricted mainly to rural production areas in certain states of Mexico. Conclusions. Our review establishes that published information on Myrtillocactus species is scarce and incomplete. The plant is under-utilised, despite its nutritional properties and commercial potential. Because they adapt easily to severely dry conditions, the Myrtillocactus species merit much more research.

Introduction. Since citrus fruits are non-climacteric, commercial harvest for a given variety can occur over a prolonged period in the same orchard. Delayed citrus harvest has previously been reported to influence fruit quality variables during the current season and to reduce the subsequent year’s yield. The aim of our study was to investigate the effect of harvest date on tree yield and fruit quality of two late-maturing Valencia orange varieties during two successive years. Materials and methods. One hundred 9-year-old Campbell and Lue Gim Gong Valencia orange trees budded on Swingle citrumelo rootstock were used. Fruit sampling included fruit harvest at five monthly intervals (April-August) during 2003, and only one harvest date (20 June) during 2004. Results and discussion. Based on seasonal variation of various fruit quality variables during the five harvests conducted in 2003, the most stable fruit quality variables were fruit weight, number of seeds per fruit, rind thickness, juice content and soluble solids content. In general, both varieties produced fruit with similar internal quality characteristics. However, their mean fruit weight differed in 2004 (Lue Gim Gong had larger fruit than Campbell). Furthermore, the annual and cumulative yields of Lue Gim Gong Valencia orange trees over two years were significantly higher than those of Campbell orange trees. Finally, the yield per tree and fruit quality of both varieties in 2003 and 2004 were not affected significantly by the date of harvest during 2003.

Introduction. Les réactions d’oxydation constatées régulièrement dans les aliments peuvent causer des dommages importants, entraînant parfois des cancers et maladies chroniques. Les extraits d’huiles essentielles étant connus pour posséder d’importantes propriétés thérapeutiques, notre étude a cherché à comparer les activités antiradicalaires et anti-inflammatoires des essences de C. reticulata var. Madagascar et C. sinensis var. Casagrande. Matériel et méthodes. Les huiles essentielles des feuilles d’agrumes ont été extraites par hydrodistillation et leur composition chimique a été analysée par chromatographie en phase gazeuse et par chromatographie en phase gazeuse couplée à la spectrométrie de masse. La détermination des propriétés antiradicalaires a été faite par la méthode du piégeage des radicaux libres à l’aide du diphenyl picryl hydrazyl (DPPH). En revanche, la méthode enzymatique par la lipoxygénase a permis d’évaluer l’activité anti-inflammatoire des extraits d’huiles essentielles obtenues par hydrodistillation. Résultats. Les propriétés antiradicalaires de nos échantillons ont été évaluées avec une SC50 égale à (4,10 ± 0,05) g·L–1 et (7,40 ± 0,55) g·L–1, respectivement, pour C. reticulata var. Madagascar et C. sinensis var. Casagrande, alors que le composé antiradicalaire de référence (butylhydroxytoluène ou BHT) donnait une SC50 de (7,02 ± 0,5) mg·L–1. Par ailleurs, les deux échantillons ont montré une activité anti-inflammatoire exploitable (IC50 de 53,5 mg·L–1 et 20,3 mg·L–1, respectivement) même si le NDGA (acide nordihydroguaiarétique) a eu une IC50 de 0,7 mg·L–1. Conclusion. C. reticulata var. Madagascar se révèle avoir une activité antiradicalaire plus importante que C. sinensis var. Casagrande, alors que cette dernière espèce a présenté l’activité anti-inflammatoire la plus marquée. Ces huiles essentielles pourraient être utilisées comme additifs alimentaires.

Introduction. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), genus Cucumovirus, is distributed worldwide; it is a common pathogen of Musa spp. and it is present in all banana-producing areas. Materials and methods. Banana and plantain (Musa) leaf tissues were collected from six major Musa-growing states of Southern Nigeria in August 2000. A broad-spectrum CMV polyclonal antibody was used in Protein A Sandwich (PAS) ELISA to detect CMV isolates, while a CMV subgroup I-specific polyclonal antibody was used in DAS-ELISA to separate subgroup I isolates. Results. Of 108 Musa leaf samples collected, 76 samples (70.4%) reacted positively with the CMV polyclonal antibodies used, in which 32 samples (42.1%) belonged to CMV subgroup I. Edo and Ondo states had low CMV subgroup I incidence of 13.6% and 17.2%, even though both states had high CMV incidence of 63.6% and 62.1% in infected samples, respectively. Imo state had the highest CMV incidence of 72.4% and subgroup I incidence of 55.2%. Of the 32 leaf samples infected with CMV subgroup I, 18 samples expressed one type of viral symptom such as interveinal chlorosis, chlorotic streaks, leaf puckering and crisp deformed leaf. Thirteen other samples expressed two or three viral symptoms, showing either vein thickening or general leaf chlorosis and any of the former symptoms. One asymptomatic leaf tissue was also infected with the virus. Discussion. Our results confirm that subgroup I and other subgroups are responsible for CMV infection in Musa species in Nigeria. The detection of CMV over a large geographical area underscores the importance of virus control measures. CMV can be controlled by use of virus-free suckers.

Introduction. Fruit flies contribute significantly to yield losses experienced by citrus farmers in Nigeria. The majority of farmers have meager resources and limited knowledge of appropriate citrus pest management strategies. The best alternative for them is the application of control methods that are environmentally friendly and affordable. Our work was therefore designed to develop baits from a cheap source for monitoring fruit fly populations and controlling them while minimizing environmental hazards. Materials and methods. Protein bait prepared locally from brewery yeast waste by the process of heat autolysis was compared with the imported protein hydrolysate bait in McPhail traps. These traps were hung on the trees of four sweet orange varieties during the major citrus fruiting seasons of 2003 and 2004. Results. Species of Ceratitis dominated in the fruit fly samples collected. Both the imported and locally made baits caught significantly higher numbers of fruit flies than the non-baited control. There was no significant difference between the populations of fruit flies caught by the two baits during the studies. The decreasing order of varieties according to trapped fruit fly numbers for both the imported and locally made baits were: Washington navel > Parson Brown > Valencia late > Agege-1. The fruit fly numbers observed on Washington navel were significantly higher than those of Agege-1 and Valencia late. Discussion. Our results show the effectiveness of the locally made protein bait in fruit fly monitoring and management. Varietal differences also played a part in determining the extent of fruit fly attacks on sweet oranges.

Introduction. Consumption of citrus fruits and their juice has strongly grown in the last few decades. However, at the present time, the traceability of these fruits is only documentary. In case of doubt or fraud, no standardized analysis makes it possible to discriminate or determine the geographical origin of culture of the fruit. Materials and methods. A method of bacterial ecology, PCR-DGGE, was used to characterize the bacterial flora of clementines imported into France from Spain and Morocco in order to show that there is a relation between the bacterial communities of the fruits and their geographical origins. The principle rests on the determination of specific biological markers for a given region. Protocols of microbial extraction and DNA amplification were optimized. Results. DGGE profiles analyzed by multivariate analysis permitted us to distinguish microbial communities from different origins. Conclusion. We propose the PCR-DGGE method as a new tool for traceability that provides citrus products with a unique bar code and makes it possible to trace back the citrus fruit to their original location.

Introduction. In Iran, sour orange is available between mid-October and March. Frequently, consumers store a large volume of unpasteurized juice at room or low temperatures for consumption when the fresh fruit is not available. The aim of our research was to determine the shelf life of unpasteurized sour orange juice which was stored under conditions similar to those adopted by consumers at home. Materials andmethods. Sour orange juice was prepared by hand-squeezing fresh fruit; it was filtered, and then poured into clear or dark green glass bottles. Bottles were stored at room temperature [(28 ± 2) °C], in the refrigerator [(4 ± 1) °C] and in the freezer [(–12 ± 1) °C] for 12 weeks. Additional samples were prepared by supplementing juice with 2% (w/w) citric acid and they were stored in the refrigerator. Total soluble solids and pH values were measured every 2 weeks and analysis was carried out on ascorbic acid content by means of the titration method in the presence of 2,6–dichlorophenol indophenol. The study was performed for 12 weeks. Resultsand discussion. Total soluble solids content and pH value of the initial juice were 11.5 °Brix and 3.18, respectively. pH appeared not to be significantly influenced by storage time or conditions; however, total soluble solids content in a few samples was reduced to about 9.5 °Brix. The initial ascorbic acid content was 130 mg·100 mL–1; after 2 weeks, it was reduced by nearly 50% for all unfrozen samples. The final concentration of ascorbic acid in the juice was approximately 20 mg·100 mL–1, regardless of storage conditions. The deteriorative reaction of ascorbic acid in the juice at each temperature experienced followed a first-order kinetic model with activation energy of 2.67 kJ·mol–1.

Introduction. Fruit fly attack on citrus causes economic yield losses in Nigeria. The high demand for sweet oranges in recent times necessitates the need to develop control strategies that can reduce fruit fly damage and ameliorate yield. This can be achieved by identifying the diversity, abundance and spread of major sweet orange fruit flies. Materials and methods. Surveys were conducted during the citrus fruit maturity periods of 2003 and 2006 in citrus-producing areas of Nigeria. Owners of the sampled orchards were interviewed on their cultural practices that could contribute to fruit fly abundance and spread. The fruit flies were sampled by using two types of trap; namely, the McPhail® trap with yeast hydrolysate bait and the yellow sticky trap impregnated with ammonium acetate. The traps were hung on the citrus trees at a distance of 1.8 m from the ground. The distance between trees was 25 m and the traps were replicated three times per site. Results and discussion. Fruit flies identified on citrus belonged to the genera Bactrocera, Ceratitis, Dacus and Trirhithrum. While higher fruit fly diversity was observed in Edo, Ogun and Oyo states in the rainforest ecological zone, relatively higher populations of major genera (Bactrocera and Ceratitis) were recorded in Benue and Kaduna states in the Guinea savanna ecological zone. Bactrocera species occurrence increased during the second sampling period. Some farmers’ cultural practices were implicated as factors likely to have contributed to fruit fly abundance and spread. Conclusion. Fruit fly species of economic importance to citrus in Nigeria belonged to the genera Ceratitis and Bactrocera species. These genera were observed in the majority of surveyed areas.

Introduction. The mango tree is of prime importance to the rural economy of central and northern Benin since it provides food and crucial nutriments at the end of the dry season. However, mango producers in Benin are confronted with two problems that are closely connected: deterioration of fruit quality by fruit flies and the inadequacy of postharvest methods. In the Sudanian zone of Benin, fruit flies (Diptera Tephritidae) are highly responsible for major production losses. Materials and methods. An inventory of all present cultivars and yields of main mango cvs. (Gouverneur, Eldon, Dabshar, Kent, Smith, Keitt and Brooks) was carried out in Benin on 7 000 fruits near Parakou (Borgou) during the years 2005 and 2006. Sampling of 3 000 young fruits (length range 13–26 mm) was carried out in 2006 in order to detect some very early tephritid attacks. A loss assessment of pre-ripening and ripening fruits was also carried out on 7 750 fruits in 2006. Results and discussion. We identified 29 cultivars in the district of Borgou where 75% of the mango orchards of Benin are situated. Most of these use the ‘gatherer’ production system. The early Gouverneur cultivar had the lowest yield (1.8 t·ha–1), and the late Brooks cultivar had the highest yield (10.4 t·ha–1). Small and immature young fruits allowed development of both C. cosyra and B. invadens in February and March, i.e., before the mango season itself: this result could be a useful result for pest control. For the pre-ripening and ripening stages, average losses due to tephritid varied from 0.34 t·ha–1 to 6.5 t·ha–1 depending on cultivar type, resulting in considerable loss of income for small planters. Taking all cultivars together, losses stood at 17% in early April and exceeded 70% at mid-June. By the middle of the crop year, over 50% losses were recorded. The seasonal cultivar Eldon and late cultivars (Keitt and Brooks) were the most infested. Conclusion. In the Sudanian zone of Benin, the two main species of Tephritidae that have a high economic impact on mango trees are B. invadens and C. cosyra. Our preliminary observations and calculations will be used in a forthcoming article to calculate the economic injury level of these fruit flies.

Introduction. Pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) is an exotic fruit species little known in Brazil and which needs basic studies about plant nutrition, propagation and physiology. Emphasizing the co-existence of juvenile and adult stages in the pitaya canopy, the plant is generally propagated by cuttings. Materials and methods. A completely randomized design with four treatments and five replications was adopted. Each treatment was represented by the part of the canopy from which the cutting was taken (upper, middle and lower cutting and cuttings from young plants). The following variables were registered: % cuttings with roots, % of live cuttings, root density, root diameter, root area, root length and root dry mass. Results were submitted to variance analyses, Tukey’s test at 0.01 probability error and simple correlation analysis. Results and discussion. The results indicated that the position from which the cutting is taken had a quantitative effect on rooting formation of pitaya cuttings. Juvenile cuttings presented 35% more cuttings with roots than adult cuttings. Root density, root area, root length and root dry mass depended on juvenility, the highest results being registered for juvenile cuttings, independently of the variable. Conclusion. Juvenile and adult stages co-exist in the pitaya canopy. Juvenility is an important rooting factor for red pitaya cuttings.

Introduction. L’acarien Oligonychus afrasiaticus, localement appelé « Boufaroua », est un ravageur des palmeraies algériennes. Pour se nourrir, il pique les dattes qui se dessèchent ensuite en fin de maturité et deviennent impropres à la commercialisation et à la consommation humaine. Des pertes économiques importantes sont alors enregistrées. Les dégâts les plus spectaculaires ont été notés sur la variété Deglet-Nour à haute valeur marchande. Matériel et méthodes. Le taux d’infestation des arbres d’une palmeraie de la région d’Ouargla a été évalué. Quatre stades phénologiques ont été considérés. Une coccinelle très vorace, Stethorus punctillum, a été récoltée dans six palmeraies puis lâchée sur des arbres expérimentaux afin de vérifier son efficacité prédatrice sur le « Boufaroua ». Résultats. L’infestation des arbres a été très variable et a augmenté au fur et à mesure de la maturité des dattes. L’efficacité de la coccinelle lâchée a été significative, et cela a été d’autant plus constaté que les arbres étaient fortement infestés. Discussion et conclusion. Stethorus punctillum joue un rôle important dans le contrôle de l’acarien O. afrasiaticus. D’autres prédateurs seraient toutefois présents en Algérie ; ils devront être testés afin d’établir une méthode de lutte biologique apte à protéger suffisamment les palmeraies contre O. afrasiaticus.

 Introduction. Despite its socio-economic importance, cultivation of Garcinia kola Heckel is very limited due to poor seed germination. The literature gives contradictory information concerning this fact. Our study therefore aimed at (1) evaluating the variability in germination traits among seeds collected from different areas of Cameroon; and (2) testing the efficiency of some hormone treatments in improving the seed germination rate, which would promote cultivation of G. kola by rural farmers. Materials and methods. Six collections of seeds originating from six locations in Cameroon were subjected to pre-sowing treatments; soaking for 3 days at room temperature in cool distilled water (control), or in cool distilled water supplemented with either 10-4 M gibberellic acid (GA3), 10-4 M naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), 10-4 M 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 10-4 M benzylaminopurine (BAP) or 10-4 M kinetin; they were then placed to germinate in laboratory conditions. Cumulative seed germination data were recorded for 30 weeks. Results. The pre-germination treatments had profound effects on the phenology of G. kola seed germination. Multiple shoots, multiple roots and callus formation were induced from seeds soaked in BAP, NAA and 2,4-D solutions, respectively. Analysis of variance showed a significant effect (p < 0.01) of seed collection on the germination velocity. Although the rate of germination was higher and the complete dormancy period lower in seeds treated with NAA than in seeds with other treatments, none of these seed treatments significantly enhanced germination. Conclusion. Variations in phenology responses of G. kola seeds to hormone treatments indicate that the tissues of this plant may be responsive in in vitro culture. Variations in seed germination velocity among collections may explain the current controversy over G. kola seed germination, and could help in further selection and domestication processes of this species.