The coccidian protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium has been described in many host species since its discovery in the early part of the century, but it remained obscure until the recognition by veterinary workers in the 1970s of its importance as a cause of scours in young livestock animals [1–4].

This survey assessed the maintenance of evaporative cooling towers in Glasgow, following two Legionnaires' disease outbreaks. Information was obtained from 76 of 81 premises and a maintenance score was calculated for each of 174 towers. The quality of maintenance was extremely varied (range of maintenance scores, 8–30 mean, 22 (S. D., 5.0); median, 23; maximum possible, 33) and some towers were neglected. Breaches of maintenance principles were mainly structural and organizational, e.g. inadequate drift control, rather than failure to use chemicals. Low maintenance scores were associated with no log book, no guidelines, no change in procedures in last 5 years, solitary cooling towers, and towers on industrial premises. Despite intense publicity the standard of cooling tower maintenance in Glasgow remained a concern. Information campaigns directed at those responsible for cooling–tower maintenance are neccessary.

Sera from 252 patients with community-acquired pneumonia were examined for the presence of antibodies to 15 antigens of 7 Legionella spp. by indirect immunofluorescent antibody testing. The sera had been collected as part of the British Thoracic Society/Public Health Laboratory Service study of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. We also examined sera from 20 patients with gram-negative sepsis.

A prospective study of genital infection was conducted in four inner-city family–planning clinics. Fifteen per cent of routine attenders had symptoms and signs of vaginal infection and many more women attended primarily because of symptoms. Among the women with both signs and symptoms, 70% had positive laboratory findings, Trichomonas vaginalis, Candida albicans and bacterial vaginosis being equally prevalent. Measurement of vaginal pH in the clinic was the single most useful clinical finding for directing empirical therapy. Among patients with a discharge confirmed on examination and an abnormally high pH, 72% had either T. vaginalis or bacterial vaginosis. Neisseria gonorrhoeae was isolated from 4% of women with, and 1% of those without, symptoms. We believe that it is worthwhile to investigate patients presenting to family-planning clinics with vaginal symptoms. No single specimen was found ideal for all pathogens, a cervical swab is better for gonococci and also for T. vaginalis but a vaginal swab is needed for Candida and bacterial vaginosis.

During a study of genital infection in inner-city family-planning patients we examined 452 women for Chlamydia trachomatis. The prevalence of infection was 7·3%. There was no significant difference between patients attending because of genital symptoms and those who were attending for routine family-planning advice. Infection was found to be correlated with five main demographic parameters; age less than 25, no stable partnership, hormonal contraception, nulliparity and West Indian Ethnic origin. Using these parameters a simple scoring system was devised which allowed a high-risk population to be defined in whom screening would be economically justified.

Fifty-eight sera, from 29 chickens originating from two layer flocks known to be naturally infected with Salmonella enteritidis phage type (PT) 4, were examined for antibodies to S. enteritidis. Using the techniques of immunoblotting and ELISA, antibodies to the lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of S. enteritidis were detected in 43 of 58 sera. Antibodies were of the IgG class and bound to the S. enteritidis LPS antigen 0=12. Bacterial agglutination reactions using whole-cell preparations of S. enteritidis and S. pullorum, correlated with anti-LPS antibody reactions as detected by immunoblotting and ELISA. A rapid means of screening chicken sera for antibodies to the LPS of S. enteritidis as an indicator of infection is discussed.

Earlier studies showed that the minimum infective dose (>106 organisms) of a virulent strain of Fusobacterium necrophorum could be greatly reduced by suspending the fusobacteria in sub-lethal doses of cultures of other bacteria such as Escherichia coli before inoculating mice subcutaneously.

In the present study the infective dose of the same strain of F. necrophorum was reduced by a factor of >103 by suspending the fusobacteria in sub-lethal doses of 5% homogenate of gaur or wallaby faeces. Sterile faecal filtrate had no such effect. The sites of low grade infection produced by the prior subcutaneous injection of E. coli culture or gaur faecal suspension were susceptible to superinfection by doses of F. necrophorum far below those required to infect normal tissue.

This work helps to explain the production of necrobacillosis by the faecal contamination of small wounds. It proved impossible, however, to produce necrobacillosis in mice by the subcutaneous injection of faecal suspensions from 33 farm cattle. This suggests that the proportion of cattle with virulent F. necrophorum in their faeces is low.

The aim of this study was to determine what weaning foods and food preparation practices expose children to a high risk of diarrhoeal disease through exposure to a contaminated diet. Bacterial contamination of 897 food and 896 drinking water samples was assessed in a water and santitation intervention project.

The geometric mean of faecal coliforms per g or ml was 7·5 x 103 in left-over rice, 1·4 x 102 in other types of boiled rice, 2·5 x 102 in milk, 4·8 in household drinking water, and 3·5 in bread. Multiplication of faecal coliforms occurred when there was a delay of more than 4 h between preparation and consumption of food. All samples were more contaminated in the rainy than in the dry season. Strategies to reduce contamination should therefore focus on ‘wet’ foods, early consumption after preparation, and re–heating of left–over foods. Understanding the reasons for the faulty practices is also essential to the formulation of effective measures.

The bacteriological quality of 198 ripened soft or semi-soft goat cheeses obtained from dairy farms and the retail trade was investigated. The cheeses were examined for total counts of aerobic bacteria, coliform bacteria (37 and 44 °C respectively), enterocoeci, coagulase positive staphylococci, Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens. Cheeses obtained from dairy-farms were also determined for pH value. In terms of all tests performed, cheeses made of heat-treated milk with starter culture had the best prospects for fulfilling the criteria for 'fit for consumption '. Cheeses made of raw milk without starter culture made up the most unsatisfactory group from a food-hygiene point of view. Bacteriological guidelines for on-farm manufactured goat cheese are suggested.

Horizontal transmission of Campylobacter jejuni was investigated in campylobactor–free broiler chicks. One hundred and twenty chicks housed individually, were provided with water containing 102−109 c.f.u./ml C. jejuni. Colonization was rapid [47 of 73 (64 %) positive cloacal cultures within 3 days and 65 of 73 (89 %) within 7 days], depenedent on C. jejuni–contaminated water or colonized seeder chicks. Transmission occurred in 2–7 days concurrent with a gradual increase of C. jejuni in litter, water and feed. Environmental samples were culture–negative within 3 days following removal of colonized chicks. Treatment of 1–day–old chicks with adult caecal microbiota did not affect colonization. Treated and control chicks were all C. jejuni–positive within 3 days of seeder challenge.

We describe the isolation of a new set of phages for typing Staphylococcus epidermidis. One hundred and eighty-two phages were obtained from S. epidermidis strains of human origin. Twelve phages were selected according to their potency and their lytic activity studied. Twenty phages of the Dean and Williams' set were also studied.

Phage-typing was undertaken at 100 × RTD, 1000 × RTD and after heat treatment at 48 °C. When the two sets of phages were compared separately similar figures were obtained. When the two typing sets wrere combined, the percentage of typability for the 182 bacterial strains increased to 29⋅1% using 1000 x RTD and to 75⋅3% after heat treatment.

The incidence of beta-haemolytic non-Group A streptococci (BHNAS) in the throats of a paediatric population was examined over a 1-year period. There was minimal seasonal fluctuation of Lancefield groups including species and biotypes within Groups C and G streptococci. A trend of increasing incidence with age of Streptococcus anginosus (‘Streptococcus milleri’) (possessing Groups C and G Lancefield antigens) was evident. A clinical impression of streptococcal pharyngitis was more common in patients with large-colony Groups C or G streptococci isolated from their throats compared with those patients where other BHNAS were isolated. This study is requisite to the planning of case control studies which are required to test the association of BHNAS (especially Groups C and G subgroups) and pharyngitis.

Stool specimens from 631 children with acute diarrhoea and from 277 healthy controls were tested for the presence of non-enteropathogenic, non-enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli strains which mediated mannose-resistant haemagglutination of human erythrocytes (MRHA + ). Fifty-nine (34·9%) of 169 isolated MRHA + strains but none of 210 MRHA - strains exhibited diffuse adherence (DA+) to HEp–2 cells. DA+ strains were found in 37 (5·9%) children with diarrhoea and in 22 (7·9%) controls. MRHA + /DA + strains in comparison to MRHA + /DA - strains significantly less frequently expressed P fimbriae (10·7 vs. 73·6%), haemolysin production (12·5 vs. 63·2%), and MRHA of other species erythrocytes (21·4 vs. 84%).

These data demonstrate that E. coli which exhibit the diffuse pattern of adherence to HEp–2 cells also cause MRHA of human erythrocytes. Since these strains were found with similar frequencies in children with and without diarrhoea it seems that DA is not a marker of enteropathogenicity of E. coli.

The relative contribution of various risk factors to the incidence of acute hepatitis B in Italy was estimated using a special surveillance system (SEIEVA) for type-specific acute viral hepatitis. At present 146 health departments (USLs) which contain 21% of the Italian population participate in SEIEVA out of the total of 650. Data on 2460 hepatitis B cases and 708 hepatitis A cases were compared.

Hospitalization, surgical intervention, dental therapy, other percutaneous exposures, barber shop shaving, i.v. drug abuse and household contact with HBsAg carriers were associated with acute hepatitis B and a large number of cases were attributable to these risk factors.

Because the control programme based on vaccination will not be effective in the short term at reducing hepatitis B incidence, other additional interventions are recommended.

The immunogenicity and reactogenicity of two preparations of yeast-derived hepatitis B vaccinces were compared in healthy adult populations. The two groups were vaccinated in parallel, but they were not matched for age and sex. All subjects seroconverted, and 9 months after the first vaccine dose, all had anti HBs titres of at least 10 IU/1. The anti-HBs titres were higher in the group of subjects given 20μg vaccine antigen made by Smith Kline & RIT (GMT 2943 at 9 months) compared to those who received 10μg of vaccine made by Merck, S harp & Dohme (GMT 729 at 9 months). Adverse effects were recorded in 32·0 and 44·7% of the participants, but these were limited to minor local and general reactions. In the present study both preparations were safe and efficient.

During 19837 a clinical diagnosis of subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE) was confirmed by the detection of measles virus haemagglutination inhibiting antibody in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in 81 subjects resident in Tamilnadu. The antibody titre (reciprocol of the endpoint dilution) in the CSF ranged from 2 to 32 and in the sera from 8 to 2048. The CSF: serum ratios of titres were 1:41:64 in 80 cases and 1:128 in one case. The median age at onset of SSPE was 10 years and 97% of cases were diagnosed at stage 2 and beyond. Based on the geographic distribution of 72 cases in an estimated population of 84 million, the annual incidence of SSPE was calculated to be 214 per million population, or 43 cases per million children below 20 years. Assuming that only 10% of all cases would have reached the level of laboratory diagnosis, the incidence may be as high as 21 cases per million population.