The production of food through fish-farming or aquaculture has become an area of increasing interest in the developing world, as the potential of unused water resources is realised and the spread of appropriate techniques for suitable fish species is encouraged. From a production through aquaculture of 6 million tonnes or approximately 10% of current captive fisheries in 1976 (Pillay 1976), estimates of as high as 4O% by the year 2000 have been given (Bardach, Rhyther and McLarney, 1972), a great part of which will be from developing countries. Where resources are limited, techniques Of aquaculture which are integrated with conventional agricultural or industrial activities by using their wastes, or which provide useful by-products, are especially to be encouraged.

The development of nutritionally complete diets for use in tropical aquaculture is essential if the desired intensification is to occur. The diets must use locally available protein sources, preferably those unsuitable for human consumption. The work currently being undertaken at Aston University has the long-term aim of developing a compound diet using plant protein sources.

Two contrasting viewpoints may be taken regarding recent agricultural trends in India. The first is positive; it highlights the large stock of foodgrains now established, the expansion of the irrigable areas and the relative price stability of basic foods. The second is more pessimistic; it notes the lack of any improvement in foodgrain consumption per capita, the large investment costs required per unit of incremental output in the new irrigation schemes, the increase in the number of rural poor, the extent of the unemployment problem and the decline in availability and consumption of high protein foods. A less controversial aspect of the agricultural scene is provided by the progress of the national dairy development programme, which is now attracting considerable international support. This note highlights some features of the dairy programme.

Smith (1976) points out that “the developing world is littered with schemes aimed at improving animal production that… have been only partially successful or… positively harmful, resulting in disruption of traditional ways of life and… destruction of the environment by overgrazing”.

Sri Lanka is an island within the tropics between the northern latitudes 5°55′ and 9°50′ and the eastern longitudes 79°42′ and 80°51′. The island covers an area of 65 000 km2 (25 332 sq. miles). The human population of the island is estimated at 14.6 million.

The Commonwealth Caribbean countries imported approximately 55 million metric tonnes of milk and dairy products in 1973 and based on this level of imports a target of 194 million metric tonnes of milk and dairy products has been set to take into account the projected demand to 1980. In order to achieve this target, it is estimated by the Caricom Regional Livestock Complex that 91 000 more dairy cows will be required and also about 63 000 ha more pastures will be needed. The Region may not be able to sustain such a high cattle population on the existing and additional pasture lands and consequently there is a great need to intensify dairy cattle production. Intensive milk production normally involves the use of well managed, heavily fertilized pastures, together with liberal use of concentrate feeds, in order to achieve and maintain a high level of output.

Records on animal performance form a basic part of management. Without records it is not possible to measure the effect of changes in management nor assess the individual performance of an animal. Condition scoring provides a means of recording body condition and may assist in monitoring changes in body reserves. However, it is of limited use if other, more significant, records are not kept. It provides an enhancement to a recording scheme in which reproduction, production health and feeding/grazing records are kept. These records should be simple. Some data are required on calvings and inseminations, milk yield and/or rate of growth, preventative and curative health measures and on the probable feed available to an animal and how this feed is utilized. Body condition scoring will provide some data for this final item.

Animal feeds based on sugar cane by-products play a major part in intensive beef production in Zimbabwe. Molasses and bagasse are widely used in factory-produced diets for complete and full feeding of slaughter cattle in confinement and also in concentrates for supplementary feeding on pasture. Feed dry matter to carcass gain conversion ratios vary from 1:12.3 on diets containing 55% molasses and zero maize, to 1:10 on diets containing 14% molasses and 52% maize.

African areas in the context of Zimbabwe refer to those parts of the country normally inhabited by the indigenous people. They constitute some 16.4 million ha and nearly half the country. Nine tenths of this land are communally owned by subsistence farmers and referred to as Tribal Trust Lands. The remaining one tenth is held on an individual, freehold or leasehold basis and is known as the Purchase land areas.

This paper is based on experience in Iran where, with only twenty five million people in a land the size of Western Europe, space is not a problem. It is 3 200 km across its longest axis and nearly 2 400 km from north to south. It is one of the highest countries in the world, consisting mainly of a large plateau, 1 500–1 800 m above sea level, which is ringed by huge mountains running for the most part north-west to south-east except for the Elburz Chain running east to west and dividing the lush sub-tropical Caspian littoral from the arid plateau. In the centre, ringed by mountains, are two vast and confluent deserts, the salt and sand deserts, into which many rivers flow, all the time weakening and drying in the shimmering heat and dryness. The Zagros and Elburz ranges rise in places to 4 500 m and are snow covered for half the year.

In tropical regions of Latin America, two general types of ecosystems, as applied to agriculture, may be identified: one is the dry/humid tropical zone, where a period of drought is followed by a period of heavy rain occurring, for example, on the Pacific Ocean Slope of Central America. The other ecosystem is the humid tropical zone, as found on the Atlantic Slope of Central America, where rain occurs every month, although not following an even distribution pattern.

The potential of the goat for milk production in the tropics has been quite extensively reviewed by Sands and McDowell (1978). They rightly concluded that many aspects of goat production are poorly understood and require further investigation but were somewhat pessimistic over the practicality of increasing supplies of goat milk in these areas. The scope of this paper is limited to intensive systems of dairy goat management and will review the subject in the light of personal experience.

In animal production systems, a particular species is utilized for two main reasons. First, because of its ability to adapt to a particular environment and use the existing resources efficiently. Second, and more particularly, its economic importance both actual and potential, which can be achieved by adjustment of the environment to suit this production. In this context, these factors are of significance to goats since they represent an important component of the livestock economies and are valued for a variety of reasons in developing countries (Devendra and Burns, 1970; Devendra, 1979a).

As with other species, traditional methods of sheep husbandry in the tropics are almost all extensive, usually involving shepherding on unfenced pastures in bush or even desert grazings. However, in both Nigeria and Ghana, it is not uncommon for small family flocks of sheep, or sheep and goats, to be confined to the compound behind the house. A room with a door opening on to the compound (either a part of the house or in another corner) is set aside to provide shelter from rain. The flock is fed partly on kitchen waste, such as plantain and cassava peelings, and partly on cut grass or the leaves of trees, the latter particularly in the dry season.

It can be safely said that animal husbandry is one of the two limbs of the agricultural sector which is called the “backbone” of Cyprus economy.

Following the establishment of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960, particular attention was focused on and efforts geared towards the development of livestock production and the attainment of a greater degree of self-sufficiency in meat and dairy products. The gross value of livestock output increased from £6.7 million in 1960 to £34.7 million in 1973. The production of sheep and goat meat, in particular, rose from 3 900 tonnes in 1960 to 10 140 tonnes in 1973 and that of milk from 21 300 to 52 700 tonnes, respectively. With such a high rate of growth, the share of animal husbandry in total agricultural output increased from about 27% in 1961 to about 46% in 1973. In 1978, the contribution of sheep and goats to the national economy was £17.2 million or about 41% of the total livestock income and 14.6% of the gross agricultural output.

Sheep are the most numerous and important livestock species in the Middle East and North Africa and number around 100 million head (Table 7.5.1). The following are the most important reasons for sheep being so significant in these areas:—

Sheep are a triple purpose species producing meat, milk and wool. Their meat is the most desired in all Islamic countries, they hold a special place with the camel in the Islamic religion and are important as sacrificial animals on feast days. Most important of all, sheep will continue to survive under conditions where most other animals will die due to heat and undernutrition.

Total sheep population in Nigeria is probably around 8 million (anonymous, 1975). The majority of these sheep live in the northern part of the country. The three most important breeds in the north are the Uda, the Balami and the Yankasa. The former two are examples of the typical longlegged, long-tailed, hairy sheep, living along the southern border of the Sahara. The Yankasa occupies the middle and most of the northern part of the country. It probably developed as a cross between the West African Dwarf (or Forest) Sheep from the south and the Uda from the north. It possesses the heavy neck ruff that is typical of the West African Dwarf but is taller and heavier.

Small ruminants are important farm animals in tropical regions of Africa, as may be concluded from the large number present. ILCA (1979) estimated the total small ruminant population of the humid zone of West Africa at 25 million. Two major reasons for keeping small ruminants are as a savings account and for meat production.

It is a world-wide experience that economic growth creates an increasing demand for food of animal origin, and, once a certain income level is reached, the demand for food of vegetable origin shrinks. Therefore, the proportion of animal products in the human diet is almost an indicator of the income level achieved by certain population groups or whole countries (excluding vegetarian societies on the one hand and pastoral societies on the other). FAO's provisional food balance sheets (FAO, 1977) indicate that, in most low income countries, animal products contribute less than 10% to total energy intake, whereas in high income countries they contribute almost 50%

The speed at which the human population is increasing and the low levels of human nutrition in certain developing countries are both well documented. Similarly, the distribution and availability of animal protein in the diet of human beings is adequately recorded.