Agricultural intensification in shade coffee farms has strong impacts on the structure and diversity of the agroforest, with negative consequences for forest specialist birds, understorey insectivores and their associated ecosystem services. Utilising variable distance transect counts, we sampled the bird community in a multiple-certified yet changing shade coffee landscape in the Peruvian East Andean foothills, to evaluate bird functional diversity and to assess potential impacts of coffee production on avian ecosystem services. To account for incomplete detection, we also calculated expected species richness per functional group, and to evaluate the effect of future species losses, we derived reduced bird communities by subsampling our data using a Monte Carlo procedure. We compared the relative abundances of functional groups based on preferred diets in the observed, expected and reduced bird communities to global functional signatures of tropical bird assemblages of forest, agroforests and agriculture. The birds in the shade coffee landscape were predominantly birds of secondary and disturbed forest habitats, indicating, as expected, strong human impact on the forest structure. Yet, the diet signatures of the observed, expected and simulated bird communities were not significantly different from global diet signatures of forest and agroforest bird communities of mixed tropical landscapes. Our results suggest that avian ecological function can be conserved at bird community level despite intensive human ecosystem use and associated losses of forest specialist and other less resilient bird species. These results underscore that forest management strategies or certification audits focused solely at ecosystem services may be insufficient to support conservation of rare or threatened bird species and that shade coffee systems can in no way replace the role of protected natural forests.

Between 1998 and 2011 we monitored the winter ranging behaviour of eight female Saker Falcons Falco cherrug fitted with satellite-received transmitters. Our tracking revealed that the winter home range area occupied by individual Saker Falcons varied greatly (median = 166 km2, range = 5-18,469 km2). A random forest model showed that Saker Falcons wintering on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau preferentially occupied areas with rich grassland (cover > 50%) on high altitude plateaus (4,000–5,000 m asl) with low levels of anthropogenic influence. Plant biomass in rich grasslands can support high winter densities of plateau pikas Ochotona curzoniae, which likely explains the preference exhibited by Saker Falcons for grassland cover > 50%. Factors influencing the abundance and distribution of this ‘keystone’ prey species are likely to have an effect on Saker Falcons and other predatory species. A key element of rangeland management on the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau has been the establishment of extensive protected areas as part of a strategy to balance economic and social development with the requirement of sustainably managing water resources, maintaining rangelands for pastoralists and conserving biological diversity. Wide ranging predatory species, such as the Saker Falcon, can be useful indicators of biodiversity in protected areas and act as ‘sentinels’ for anthropogenic changes that may impact many different taxa.

The last irrefutable record of the Critically Endangered Slender-billed Curlew Numenius tenuirostris came from 1995. The range of the species is poorly known, but between 2009 and 2011, volunteer observers surveyed more than 680 sites in 19 countries, with additional search effort in a further 12 countries. Although there were no definite sightings (two birds that might have been Slender-billed Curlew were reported), there were other benefits. These included increased knowledge of species distributions and populations in seldom visited areas (over 500,000 birds of over 400 species were observed), the identification of threats to at least 10 Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas, the identification of sites that could qualify as Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas, and capacity building and education through involvement with local survey teams and observers and finally recommendations for future surveys. Thus, these surveys demonstrate the potential benefits of volunteer field surveys for non-focal species.

Distribution and habitat description of the endangered Junín Rail Laterallus tuerosi were assessed during a field study between 6 and 20 February 2014 in the marshes surrounding Lake Junín in the high Andes of Peru, which is the only known locality for the species. By using point counts and playback, we found the species to be present in the marshland all around the lake, with preference for two clearly defined habitat types: one comprising extensively grazed tussocks of Festuca dolichophylla and the other of rather uniform stands of Juncus balticus with undergrowth, or smaller open spaces, with various low herbs. We estimate the suitable habitat of the species to be a minimum of 100 km2 and based upon our point count data we provide indicative population figures of 6,200 individuals, which is higher than previous estimates. No records were obtained without playback, although five minutes of silent listening prior to playback were used at each point. All records were in vegetation of at least 0.5 m tall and in the marshy edge on muddy ground with less than 20 cm of water depth. Grazing especially by sheep or cattle is a serious threat to the marsh vegetation structure essential for Junín Rail and the rail is also under pressure from fluctuations in water levels accentuated by regulation for hydroelectric power.

Habitat selection of endangered species in peripheral populations must be considered when designing effective conservation plans, as these populations tend to occupy atypical habitats where species-environment relationships are not well understood. We examined patterns of habitat use in peripheral populations of the endangered Dupont’s Lark Chersophilus duplonti using a multi-scale approach and assessed the spatiotemporal transferability of these models to test for their generality. Our results show that at microhabitat (circles of 50-m diameter used by the species versus random points) and macrohabitat (occupied/unoccupied squares of 1 ha) scales the species selected flat and non-forested areas, but at the microhabitat scale the cover of small shrubs was also important. Models developed at patch scale (occupied /unoccupied sites) identified only site size as an important predictor of species occurrence. Habitat models transferred successfully among sites and years, which suggests that these models and our recommendations may be extrapolated over a larger geographic area. A multi-scale approach was used for identifying conservation requirements at different spatial scales. At the patch scale our models confirm it is a priority to maintain or enlarge the extent of habitat patches to ensure the viability of the studied metapopulation. At the macrohabitat scale our results suggest that reducing tree density in low slope areas would be the most effective management action. At the microhabitat scale, encouraging the presence of small and medium-sized shrubs, by clearing certain scrubs (e.g. large brooms Genista spp. and rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis) or promoting traditional low-level extensive grazing, should increase the availability of high-quality habitats for the species, and thus the number of potential territories within a patch. These recommendations largely coincide with the ones given for core populations at specific scales elsewhere.

Safeguarding threatened species in captivity is a promising management approach, but evaluating the performance of captive programmes is essential to assess reintroduction potential. The eastern population of the Northern Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita, used to be a locally common migratory bird species, but catastrophic population declines throughout the past century have resulted in a single population in southern Turkey that forages freely during summer but only survives in captivity during winter. We examined whether breeding success of this semi-wild colony was comparable to breeding success of previous wild populations, and to what extent breeding success was influenced by supplementary feeding and wild foraging in habitats near the breeding station. Average productivity from 2009 to 2015 was 1.12 fledglings per nesting pair (range 0.96–1.19). In 2013 and 2014, there was no correlation between attendance at supplementary feeding events and productivity, and breeding birds attended on average only 35% of supplementary feeding events. Birds that were frequently observed at a local tree nursery raised fewer offspring, while birds observed more frequently in poldered cultivation, and in particular in mint crops or in fields covered with manure, raised on average more offspring. Foraging success was highest in meadows and cropland, particularly in mint crops and fields covered in manure, and lowest at the tree nursery. We speculate that selection of highly suitable wild foraging habitat such as mint crops or fields covered in manure allows the Northern Bald Ibis to raise more fledglings than exclusive reliance on supplementary food provided at the breeding station. Establishing a second breeding colony of this species in Turkey will therefore require a careful assessment of the suitability of wild foraging habitat in the vicinity of suitable nesting opportunities.

Most attention on tropical biodiversity conservation has focussed on protected areas. Recognising and enhancing the value of biodiversity outside, as well as inside, protected areas is increasingly important given recognition that biodiversity targets will not be met through protected areas alone. We investigated the extent to which protection influences colony occupancy and colony size of a species of conservation concern, the rock-nesting White-necked Picathartes Picathartes gymnocephalus. We used mixed models to compare long term trends at 42 colonies located both inside and outside a protected area of forest, Gola Rainforest National Park, and considered colonies further inside the boundary as being better protected. Colony occupation was primarily predicted by the level of protection, with occupation highest within protected areas, but was not different between colonies situated close to or far from the boundary. Mean colony occupation was consistently high in protected areas, and lower in unprotected areas. The surface area of colony rocks was also an important predictor with larger rock faces having a higher probability of occupancy. Our best models also included distance to forested habitat, presence of cleared forest and evidence of hunting as less important predictors. Over the eight-year study, after controlling for rock surface area, active colony size declined significantly. However, declines were only significant in colonies in unprotected forest, whilst colonies located within protected areas were buffered from significant decline. Together this suggests colony occupancy and the number of active nests are influenced by protection and human disturbance. Although a lack of demographic and population dynamic work on picathartes prevents identifying mechanisms, we show that despite unprotected colonies having lower occupancy and fewer active nests they can persist in human altered and disturbed areas, partly because larger traditionally used rocks remain important nesting sites.

Human modified landscapes make up a growing proportion of the tropics, but are relatively little studied. The spatial distribution of remnant vegetation can structure and shape local biodiversity, affecting the provisioning of ecosystem services and regulation of pest problems. We compared species composition, abundance and functional diversity of birds between forest and homegardens close to (0–100 m) and further away from (1,500–2,000 m) moist evergreen Afromontane forests in south-western Ethiopia. We thoroughly inventoried birds with point counts and mist netting in two forest sites and three garden sites of each type. Gardens differed in general species composition from forests, with fewer forest specialist species (7% versus 29% of recorded species), but instead supported many other species that were rarely encountered in the forests. Overall gardens had higher numbers of species than forests. Homegardens close to the forest and further from the forest were similar to each other in terms of species richness and overall species composition. Both garden types had a similar composition in terms of the relative proportion of species with different habitat preferences as well as the composition of species from different feeding guilds. The lack of forest specialists in even the most structurally complex part of the agricultural landscape close to forest edges suggests that the last larger forest remnants are critical for conservation of forest specialists. Nonetheless, homegardens maintain rich bird diversity that also should be considered in a biodiversity conservation context. Further research is needed to establish to what extent the richness and composition of the agro-ecological bird fauna is regulated by the existence of forest patches in the region. Our results could not resolve this question since gardens two kilometers from the forest edge were similar in composition to gardens close to the forest edges.

The endangered Green Peafowl Pavo muticus is one of the most threatened vertebrate species in South-East Asia and has undergone a rapid decline in both distribution and population density. The remaining populations are mostly limited to protected areas where an understanding of their ecological requirements is required to ensure that conservation management is effective. To clarify this, we investigated their population status and ecological requirements in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, western Thailand. Line transect surveys across five sections of the Sanctuary revealed variation in population density, apparently linked to recent levels of human activity and management. Comparison of encounter rates along transects with those recorded in similar surveys conducted 21 years previously showed an increase in numbers in most of the peripheral areas of the sanctuary whilst numbers in the core area have remained stable. Using camera trapping and radio tracking to investigate habitat selection all year round, our results showed that the Green Peafowl preferred areas with an open understorey but a high percentage cover of ground vegetation. During the breeding season they preferred to cluster near streams to establish a display site, whilst in the non-breeding season they ranged more widely but still preferred areas of open understorey and high ground cover. We present some evidence of temporary avoidance of areas recently frequented by large predators (tiger and common leopard). Our results suggest that increased patrols to control hunting help to allow Green Peafowl populations to recover. We suggest that measures that allow recovery of populations of species such as Green Peafowl will ultimately enhance large predator conservation through increasing their prey base.

Habitat suitability models can guide species conservation by identifying correlates of occurrence and predicting where species are likely to occur. We created habitat suitability models for the White-breasted Thrasher Ramphocinclus brachyurus, a narrowly distributed endangered songbird that occupies dry forest in Saint Lucia and Martinique. Eighty-five percent of the global population inhabits two ranges in Saint Lucia, both of which are largely unprotected and threatened by development. We developed three habitat suitability models using Maxent techniques and published occupancy datasets collected from the species’ two Saint Lucian ranges, and used abiotic, land cover, and predator distribution predictors. We built one model with occupancy data from both ranges, and two others with occupancy data specific to each range. The best full-range model included 11 predictors; high suitability was associated with close proximity to Saint Lucia fer-de-lance Bothrops caribbeaus range, moderately low precipitation, and areas near streams. Our assessment of suitable sites island-wide was more restricted than results from a recent model that considered older land cover data and omitted predator distributions. All sites identified in our full-range model as highly suitable were in or adjacent to the species’ current designated range. The model trained on southern range occurrences predicted zero suitable habitat in the northern range, where the population is much smaller. In contrast, the model trained on northern range occurrences identified areas of moderate suitability within the southern range and patches of moderately suitable habitat in the western part of the island, where no White-breasted Thrashers currently occur. We interpret these results as suggesting that White-breasted Thrashers currently occupy virtually all suitable habitat on the island, that birds in the northern range occupy marginal habitat, or that an important correlate of suitability is missing from the model. Our results suggest that habitat management should focus on currently occupied areas.

We studied the habitat preferences of breeding Yellow Buntings Emberiza sulphurata, taking into account the effects of paddyfield abandonment in hilly rural areas within the heavy snow region of northern Japan. Across 30 transects located in valley bottoms, we investigated the relationship between Yellow Bunting abundance and landscape characteristics. The results of generalized linear mixed models showed that forest edge density and landslide sites positively affected Yellow Bunting abundance. These habitats were associated with bush vegetation (forest edge, shrub land, and tall grassland) and were adjacent to the forest. Paddyfield abandonment showed a hump-shaped effect with a peak at the middle succession stage, which was covered primarily with tall grass and some shrubs, but the effect on Yellow Bunting abundance was not statistically significant. To conserve Yellow Bunting habitats in hilly rural areas, it is necessary to protect the forest edge and landslide sites from urbanisation and exploitation. It is also necessary to continue crop cultivation in such areas, to maintain the edges between open land and forest. If cultivation can no longer be continued, the abandoned paddyfields should be kept bushy, using reed beds and shrubs, by active management.

Natural habitats are being rapidly lost due to human activities. It is therefore vital to understand how these activities influence biodiversity so that suitable guidelines can be established for conservation. This is particularly important in understudied, high biodiversity, areas such as the Angolan Escarpment. Here we examine which habitat characteristics drive bird diversity and endemic species presence at Kumbira Forest, a key site in the Central Escarpment Forest. Bird diversity was sampled by 10 min bird point counts, whereas habitat characteristics were measured by a combination of ground-based vegetation surveys and remotely sensed data modelling of Landsat images. GLM, multi-model inference and model averaging were used to determine the most important variables driving species richness and the presence of endemics. The remote sensing variables performed poorly in predicting presence of Red-crested Turaco Tauraco erythrolophus and Gabela Bushshrike Laniarius amboimensis but they contributed significantly to explain species richness and Gabela Akalat Sheppardia gabela presence, both of which were associated with greater canopy cover. Liana density and elevation were also important explanatory variables in certain cases. Conservation actions at Kumbira should focus on increasing canopy cover and maintaining forest integrity (as measured by liana density), as these actions are likely to have the most positive outcomes for the avifauna.

Corncrakes Crex crex mainly breed in grassland, where they are threatened by mowing. Conservation requires delayed mowing or modified mowing methods. In large fields, it has been suggested that leaving strips of uncut grass may reduce mortality, especially of unfledged chicks. We attended mowing operations (2012–2015) in the Lower Oder Valley National Park in north-eastern Germany, where 10-m refuge strips were introduced. We documented the escape behaviour of adults and chicks and their use of refuge strips by observations and radio-telemetry. Flightless chicks crossed significantly shorter distances of mown area (< 20 m) than adults. When mowing from the outside inwards, chicks were not able to successfully escape to the field edge at > 31 m, adults at > 60 m distance to the edge and returned to the unmown block. Twenty-three percent of adults, 30% of families and 49% of independent chicks survived in 10 m-wide strips until such strips were either mown or left as refuges. Whereas adults departed the strips the next day, independent chicks stayed for up to 22 days after mowing in 15–30 m wide refuges. We recommend refuge strips for breeding sites where more effective measures cannot be applied. Farmers face less additional effort and lower financial losses compared with delayed mowing. A width of 10 m should be considered as the absolute minimum, because most birds left the cover already > 10 m for the first time and only wider refuges served as temporary habitat for young.

The Ruddy-headed Goose Chloephaga rubidiceps has two separate and genetically distinct populations, one sedentary that inhabits the Malvinas/Falklands Islands and another migratory, which inhabits continental southern South America. New information suggests that these populations should be considered as different evolutionarily significant units. The latter population breeds in Austral Patagonia (Argentina and Chile) and overwinters in Central Argentina. It was a very common species in Austral Magellanic steppe grasslands before 1931, when it was declared an “agricultural pest” by the Argentinian government, together with other sheldgeese species. Since then, the continental Ruddy-headed Goose population has declined becoming one of the scarcest species in Austral Magellanic steppe. Nowadays, its population is categorised as critically endangered in Argentina and endangered in Chile. We present data from six road censuses conducted in the breeding areas of Santa Cruz and Tierra del Fuego provinces, Argentina, during 2013–2014 and 2014–2015 (>4600 km, 70 days) and review population trends of the Ruddy-headed Goose since the early 1900s. We counted a maximum of 19 individuals in Santa Cruz and 49 in Tierra del Fuego throughout the breeding season. A literature review indicates that during the last 40 years the size of continental population of Ruddy-headed Goose has been < 800 individuals, approximately 10% of the estimated population in the 1900s. This decline matches the period following the application of control techniques and the introduction of exotic predator species in the breeding grounds of Tierra del Fuego. We review and discuss formerly proposed conservation actions that may have a positive and rapid effect on sheldgoose numbers recovery. We suggest that the continental population of Ruddy-headed Goose should on a precautionary basis be treated as a critically endangered population until genetic studies determine whether we are in the presence of a new ‘Critically Endangered’ species.

Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is increasingly common, and is expanding worldwide. Wind farms cause mortality of flying animals through collision with moving rotor blades, and from electrocution on associated power lines. Avian mortality rates have been estimated from birds collected under turbines over varying time intervals. However, without adequate and frequent monitoring, dead birds may be removed by scavengers and thus cause an underestimation of fatalities. In this paper, we tested experimentally for possible errors arising in avian mortality caused by the removal of carcasses by scavengers. At two different wind farms and associated power lines in southern Spain, we placed pigeon and quail carcasses to determine their disappearance rate. All dead pigeons were radio-tagged to estimate distances taken by scavengers. We found significant differences in carcass disappearance rates of pigeons and quails, and between wind farms and power lines but not between habitats. All quails and 45% of pigeon carcasses had disappeared by the third and fourteenth day, respectively. Less than half (40%) of the carcasses were found < 100 m from where they were deposited. While scavenging losses may vary according to the location of the wind farm or power line, here we propose a method to estimate correctly the number of fatalities at any wind farm and power line. Using this method, we can improve our understanding of the real impact of wind structures on adjacent bird communities, and adopt appropriate measures to ensure their conservation.

We present the first study of the spatial and temporal dynamics of raptors and large soaring birds from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico. Using systematic migration counts from multiple localities in the southern states of Oaxaca and Chiapas, as well as observations of their flight trajectories during eight consecutive years (2007–2014), we describe the magnitude of these movements, their geographic extent, and the phenology of the most abundant species in both spring and fall seasons. The most abundant species were Turkey Vulture Cathartes aura, Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swainsoni, Broad-winged Hawk Buteo platypterus, Wood Stork Mycteria americana, American White Pelican Pelecanus erythrothynchos, Franklin’s Gull Leucophaeus pipixcan, and American Kestrel Falco sparverius. In spring, the seasonal average magnitude of migration was over 28,000 birds, while in autumn the average was over one million. The aggregated seasonal phenologies recorded illustrate a variety of migration patterns. The inter-annual variation is lower in autumn than in spring. Migrating raptors and other soaring birds did not seem to use any topographical feature as a leading line for their movements in spring, while in autumn they did. We estimated the main axis of spring flights to run along a SE–NW vector, while autumn migration follows a WNW–ESE general trajectory. Our results place the isthmus as one of the five most important sites in the world for raptors and soaring migrants. Sustaining annual migration counts at these sites is of high importance to track substantial portions (> 90%) of the global population of Turkey Vulture and Swainson’s Hawk, as well as over 10% of the global population of Broad-winged Hawk. Autumn migration counts have the potential for long-term population monitoring.

The catastrophic decline of the endangered Green peafowl Pavo muticus across its former range is well known, yet there are only a handful of reliable population estimates for this species from its remaining range, making global assessment challenging. We present the first rigorous population estimates for this species from Cambodia, and model the distribution and the relationships between this species and several environmental covariates from the Core Zone (187,900 ha) of Seima Protection Forest (SPF), eastern Cambodia. Using distance sampling the abundance of Green Peafowl in SPF in 2014 is estimated to be 541 (95% CI [252, 1160]). Density surface modelling was used to predict distribution and relative abundance within the study area, and there was some evidence that the species prefers areas of deciduous forest, non-forest, and to a lesser extent semi-evergreen forest. These results highlight the importance of the central and northern sections of SPF for this species. Furthermore, the analysis suggested that Green Peafowl abundance is higher in closer proximity to water, yet decreases in closer proximity to human settlement.

In Thailand, as for most of South-East Asia, large vertebrates are declining rapidly due to habitat degradation and increasing hunting pressure. Once relatively common in the evergreen forest of Southern Thailand, the Great Argus Argusianus argus is currently limited to a few populations, whose status is currently unknown. In this study we investigated changes in Great Argus abundance over the past 13 years in Hala-Bala Wildlife Sanctuary. Our aim was to estimate and compare the abundance and density of this species from an earlier two-year survey in 2001–2002 and ours in 2014, and to assess the effect of landscape change on its status of the species. We conducted surveys from March to August 2014 during the breeding season. We placed point counts that overlapped the line transects from the 2001–2002 survey. The results indicated a decline of > 35% in mean abundance from 2001 to 2014. In addition, male abundance has shifted and is now positively related to distance from the forest edge. High levels of human disturbance close to the forest edge may have resulted in the birds moving to the core of the forest, suggesting a need to increase protection and management of forest edge areas. In common with other studies of large vertebrates, our results confirm the importance of long-term studies to highlight the negative effects of human disturbance.

Informed application of habitat management measures is crucial, especially in saltmarshes that function as last refuges for breeding waders in Europe. Despite a reduction in agricultural use of saltmarshes since the establishment of the Wadden Sea National Parks at the end of the 1980s, there remains controversy regarding management measures such as the timing of mowing. We modelled the proportion of nests and chicks that would be jeopardised by mowing at different dates, using long-term breeding data of the Common Redshank Tringa totanus – an endangered and widespread indicator species of saltmarshes – from four study sites in the German Wadden Sea. At two study sites in the western Jadebusen, the proportion of broods that were at risk of being killed when mowing began on 1 July ranged between 78% in early, to 96% in late, breeding years, averaging 87%. Although Common Redshanks in the eastern Jadebusen started breeding one week earlier, the model still predicted a loss of 73% of chicks; while 97% of broods were at risk on the island of Wangerooge. Postponement of mowing to 1 August reduced these proportions to 21%, 11% and 32%, respectively. This study is the first to model the positive effects of delayed mowing of saltmarshes on ground-nesting birds. By implementing adjusted mowing dates in addition to previously suggested reductions in artificial drainage, direct and indirect adverse effects caused by mowing and drainage, such as an increased predation risk, are likely to be reduced, such that a ’favourable conservation status’ according to the EC Habitats Directive may be achieved.

We report the size and density of an Egyptian Vulture population in Turkey and provide insight into its nest site selection patterns. The study was carried out at Beypazarı (Turkey), holding one of the densest Egyptian Vulture populations (six pairs per 100 km2) in the Western Palearctic. Random Forests analysis revealed that human impact was a potential factor governing the distribution of nest sites, as the pairs clearly preferred to breed away from nearby villages, towns or roads. Utilisation of elevation gradient and aspect was similar to other studied populations, with the probability of nesting increasing at lower altitudes and for south-facing cliffs. Nearest-neighbour distance between nests was about 1.5 km, indicating territorial behaviour when choosing nest sites at the local scale. Our findings provide guidance for nature conservation NGOs and related government bodies for their various actions including designation of Important Bird Areas, regulation of mining practices and preparation of environmental impact assessments.