Transect bird surveys were conducted at 43 tallgrass prairies in southwestern Missouri, U.S.A. in mid-June each year from 1992 to 1999. Litter volume on and near the ground was estimated on a nine-point scale during 1994 to 1999. The relative importance of management type (rotational burning, rotational haying, or a combination of both) and litter volume on relative abundance was analysed for three declining grassland songbirds: Henslow's Sparrow Ammodramus henslowii, Grasshopper Sparrow A. savannarum, and Dickcissel Spiza americana. Haying resulted in significantly higher abundance than burning for all species except Dickcissel, for which few significant management effects were detected. Henslow's Sparrow increased in abundance from light to heavy litter, Grasshopper Sparrow peaked in low to intermediate litter, and Dickcissel showed little pattern relative to litter. Litter scores recorded in each management type increased with number of years since last treatment. Although litter profoundly affected bird abundance, independent and equally important was whether that litter was obtained via haying or burning. Greater consistency among years in hayed vegetation structure may help explain these birds' preference for haying over burning or haying + burning. Rotational haying should be employed more than burning in the management of these declining birds, especially for the sharply declining, fire-sensitive Henslow's and Grasshopper Sparrows.

African Penguins Spheniscus demersus naturally breed in guano burrows which provide shelter from predators and extreme weather conditions. Past guano harvesting has removed this habitat and artificial nests of different types have been deployed, with previous research identifying variable success of these different types. We investigated climatic conditions in two types of artificial nests, and compared them to natural burrows and surface nests for two weeks in the incubation and early chick-rearing phases of the 2012 summer breeding season on Bird Island, Algoa Bay, South Africa. We also compared breeding success since 2009 between some of these nest types. Natural burrows remained the best insulated from extremes of temperature and humidity, with temperatures consistently higher and humidity consistently lower than in exposed nests and the two types of artificial nests. Fibreglass nests retained temperatures > 30°C, when Spheniscus penguins start being heat-stressed, for the longest periods of time. Sustained high temperatures will induce increased energy expenditure associated with active thermoregulation for birds in these nests. The combination of high temperatures and low humidity could also have contributed to damaging water loss in the eggs and reduced egg survival, as suggested by the consistent lower hatching success in the fibreglass nests. Cement nests had more moderate temperatures than fibreglass nests and higher breeding success, possibly due to superior ventilation. Vegetation cover had no effect on the temperature regime inside fibreglass nests. To maximise conservation efforts for these endangered penguins, additional research should be conducted towards engineering artificial nests that better mimic the conditions of natural burrows.

North-west Iberia is a crucial stopover region for European populations of Pied Flycatchers Ficedula hypoleuca and Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata during their summer-autumn migration. Both species are almost completely insectivorous during breeding in Europe and wintering in sub-Saharan Africa, but are known to consume fleshy fruits during summer-autumn migration, though no detailed investigations have been carried out over long periods of time. In this study, the summer-autumn feeding ecology of Pied and Spotted Flycatchers in a stopover area in north-west Spain, with a landscape of hedgerows and irrigated meadows, was studied for five consecutive years (2002–2006). In general, the passage of both flycatcher species was noticeable from mid-August to the end of September, with a peak in the first ten days of September. The two flycatcher species consumed fruits throughout the stopover period in all years, with constant intensity of frugivory in time, though the importance of fruits was almost three times greater in the diet of Pied Flycatchers (c. 30% of feeding acts) than in that of Spotted Flycatchers (c. 10% of feeding acts). Both species preferred Dogwood Cornus sanguinea fruits, but also ate Elder Sambucus nigra berries and Bramble Rubus spp. drupelets. The high level of selection of Dogwood fruits was probably linked to their high lipid content, an essential nutrient for fattening in long-distance migrant passerines. Hedgerows and wood edges in north-west Iberia are rich in fleshy fruits but threatened by intensive farming. Their conservation and restoration are proposed because they seem to be high-quality stopover habitats for partially frugivorous passerines during summer-autumn migration.

Many woodpecker species are known to be sensitive to the removal of dead wood. In 1999–2001 and 2007–2009 woodpeckers and dead wood abundance were studied in coniferous stands of the Białowieża Forest, Poland. Transects (3.9–6 km long) were established in three zones of different types of management: 1) primeval, unmanaged stands (BNP); 2) partially managed nature reserve (RES); 3) heavily managed stands (MAN). Woodpeckers were counted along transects three times per season, and tree stand measurements (number of standing and fallen trees, diameter at breast height, volume of fallen logs) were made once every three years. Woodpecker indices were highest in BNP and lowest in RES in both three-year study periods. The highest number of species (seven) was recorded in RES. Indices of four woodpeckers including two focal species (Three-toed Woodpecker Picoides tridactylus and White-backed Woodpecker Dendrocopos leucotos) were dependent on the basal area of dead standing trees. The same relation was found for the whole woodpecker assemblage. The highest indices were recorded in BNP, where the highest density of dead standing trees was recorded, and the lowest in the MAN transect with the lowest density of dead trees. However in the RES plot the amount of dead wood was much lower than in the national park. We recommend that the management regulations in Polish nature reserves be changed. In coniferous reserves, it would be best to leave at least 2 m2 ha-1 (basal area) of freshly killed spruce Picea sp. after each bark beetle outbreak.

Vulturine Parrots Psittrichas fulgidus are endemic to the island of New Guinea. A review of the literature and specimen holdings indicate the species mostly occurs 500 to 1800 m a.s.l. Observations suggest the species occurs in low densities. The species is a highly specialized frugivore feeding on just a few species of figs (Ficus, Moraceae). These parrots are heavily exploited (often by destroying scarce nesting cavities) in Papua New Guinea for their feathers, used in traditional adornment. This practice might not be sustainable and four possible conservation measures are suggested: (1) increase field studies; (2) restrict transport of live birds on domestic flights; (3) replace use of Psittrichas feathers with dyed chicken feathers; (4) instruct tourists not to purchase handicrafts containing Psittrichas or other animal parts.

We studied the exploitation of crab-beds and fishing grounds by Olrog's Gulls Larus atlanticus in non-breeding areas along the coast of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. During 2004 and 2005, censuses were performed in different areas of Mar Chiquita coastal lagoon and Mar del Plata harbour. Additionally, from April to August 2005 the movements of five non-breeding individuals were studied by means of radio-telemetry. At both study sites the highest numbers of Olrog's Gulls were observed between June and August. A total of 278 radio-tracked locations (from 407 samples) were registered. All the tracked individuals showed strong site fidelity, with 96% of the radio signals registered in the vicinity of the lagoon's mouth, associated with both crab-beds and areas where sport-fishing activities took place. Conservation issues in non-breeding areas should be tackled in the near future, given the conservation status of this species (Vulnerable) and the fact that each year several Olrog's Gulls are being killed because of their interaction with sport-fishing activities.

Resumo

Se estudió la utilización de cangrejales y áreas de pesca por la Gaviota de Olrog durante el periodo no reproductivo. Durante los aãos 2004 y 2005 se realizaron censos en diferentes áreas de la Laguna Costera Mar Chiquita y el Puerto Mar del Plata, Provincia de Buenos Aires, Argentina. En ambos sitios de estudio el mayor número de individuos se observó entre los meses de junio y agosto. Adicionalmente entre los meses de abril y agosto de 2005 se estudiaron los movimientos de cinco individuos no reproductores mediante el uso de radio-transmisores. De un total de 407 muestras se obtuvieron 278 localizaciones. Todos los individuos instrumentados mostraron una alta fidelidad al sitio. El 96% de las localizaciones se registraron en cercanías de la desembocadura de la laguna, asociadas a cangrejales y areas de pesca deportiva. Considerando el estatus de conservación de la Gaviota de Olrog (‘Vulnerable’) y los efectos negativos de su interacción con la pesca deportiva, programas de conservación en áreas no reproductivas deben ser implementados.

There are no previous studies supporting the link between the decline of Roller Coracias garrulus populations in the Palaearctic and agricultural intensification. We studied the effect of farming practices on Roller reproduction during 1988–1991 in south-west Spain. Nest-boxes were installed on power pylons that crossed six different man-made habitats representing the most characteristic habitats in the Mediterranean region: pasture fields with and without holm oak Quercus rotundifolia trees, cereal fields with and without holm oak trees, scrub fields and irrigated fields. Rollers nesting in nest-boxes erected in unwooded pasture field had the highest breeding success, suggesting that this is the most suitable nesting habitat of Rollers in the region. There were no significant effects of farming practices in habitat adjacent to nests on Roller laying date and clutch size. However, after controlling for laying date, current agricultural practices around nests affected chick mortality, with higher losses in irrigated fields. Breeding success and egg productivity were also affected by farming activities, with the lowest values in irrigated fields. Future conservation plans for Rollers should consider that nest-box provision might increase habitat suitability for Roller reproduction and that highly intensified agricultural practices might have deleterious effects on Roller populations.

Lear’s Macaw Anodorhynchus leari is currently listed as “Endangered” by IUCN. Although it only breeds on cliffs at two protected sites in Bahia State, Brazil, there is no accurate information on population parameters such as the number of breeding pairs and their breeding performance. Between 2009 and 2010, we sought to quantify, for the first time, breeding population size and the main breeding parameters for the species in the two known breeding sites, by quantifying the number of active nests and monitoring 75 breeding attempts. Overall, 80% of the breeding attempts were successful with 1.33 (± 0.86 SD) fledglings/breeding attempt (productivity) and 1.67 (± 0.60 SD) fledglings/successful nest (brood size). Breeding success and productivity were higher in 2010, while brood size did not vary between years and breeding sites. By adding 73 estimated nests to the 41 nests monitored, 228 individuals were estimated to be reproductively active in 2010, representing c.20% of the population (1,125 individuals). Given that the species is confined to a single population, further population increases could provoke overcrowding and negative density-dependent effects if it does not expand geographically. Therefore, long-term population monitoring focusing on the fraction of the population that is actually breeding and its breeding performance, rather than solely on the whole population size, is important for a better understanding of the population dynamics and conservation of this species.

Asian hornbills are primarily frugivorous. We studied the characteristics of fruits consumed by four sympatric hornbill species in Thailand: Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), Wreathed Hornbill (Aceros undulatus), Austin's Brown Hornbill (Anorrhinus austeni) and Oriental Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros albirostris). We compared the frequency of distribution of 11 variables for all fruit species collected in the study area (n = 259) and fruit species consumed by hornbills (n = 73). Our analysis revealed that fruits consumed by hornbills are: (1) large, (2) easily accessible within the canopy, (3) red, purple or black and (4) dehiscent or indehiscent with a thin husk. The range of fruit sizes eaten by hornbills in our study is comparable to that reported from other sites in Southeast Asia and Africa. The large gape width of hornbills enables them to consume large fruits that small frugivores would find difficult to consume.

A molecular phylogeny of the Spizaetus cirrhatus complex is presented in this study, based on two sections of the mitochondrial genome: partial sequences of the cytochrome b gene and of the control region (CR). The topologies derived from the two sequences are in agreement. Within S. cirrhatus distances are rather low (0–1.5% in cytochrome b). Among the cirrhatus subspecies the island taxa floris, vanheurni and andamanensis form distinct haplogroups in the CR trees, conforming to the earlier subspecific divisions which were based on morphological characters. On the other hand, the most widespread subspecies, limnaeetus, does not represent a monophyletic group in the gene trees and its haplogroups do not cluster according to geographic affinities. An unambiguous resolution of relationships among haplotypes and haplogroups, respectively, was not achieved, suggesting a more recent radiation of this group of hawk-eagles in the course of the last ice ages. Concerning the outgroup taxa Spizaetus philippensis and Spizaetus lanceolatus, our data indicate a clear genetic distinction between the two subspecies S. p. philippensis and S. p. pinskeri, suggesting that they should be treated as distinct species. Yet the phylogenetic relationships of the three outgroup taxa with respect to S. cirrhatus are ambiguous in our trees. The taxonomic consequences of applying different species concepts (BSC, PSC) are discussed. The species concept chosen would result in different conservation strategies.

Despite the global significance of the Leach’s Storm-petrel Hydrobates leucorhous colony on Baccalieu Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, the estimate of 3.36 million breeding pairs reported for 1984 by Sklepkovych and Montevecchi stands as the single published population estimate for the world’s largest colony. This study increases knowledge of this population by analysing data from additional independent surveys conducted in 1984 and 1985, and by updating the population status with a survey conducted in 2013. Population estimates were derived by extrapolating occupied burrow densities to the estimated occupied area of four main habitat types (heath, forest, grass and fern), which in turn were based on proportions of habitats observed in plots (1984 and 1985) or by using a Geographic Information System approach (2013). Based on these surveys, the Leach’s Storm-petrel breeding population size on Baccalieu Island was estimated at 5.12 ± 0.73 (SE) and 4.60 ± 0.42 (SE) million pairs in 1984 and 1985 respectively, representing estimates 37–51% greater than the original 1984 survey. While discrepancies among these estimates were largely driven by the way occupied areas were estimated, our study confirms that Baccalieu Island hosts the largest Leach’s Storm-petrel colony in the world. Results from the 2013 survey estimate the current breeding Leach’s Storm-petrel population at 1.95 ± 0.14 (SE) million pairs, representing a 42% decline over 29 years (-1.4% per year), relative to the original published estimate of 3.36 ± 0.12 (SE) million pairs. The most prominent change has occurred in the density of storm-petrel burrows found in forest habitat which dropped by 70% despite forest remaining the second most abundant habitat available to nesting storm-petrels on Baccalieu Island. The cause of this decline remains unknown and is likely multi-faceted. Future research focusing on demographic studies is required to understand what is driving the population decline of this internationally important colony.

Long-term population monitoring is crucial to evaluate the effectiveness of conservation efforts. Systematic surveys of the endangered Black-faced Spoonbill Platalea minor, the rarest spoonbill species globally, are not possible during the breeding season as the largest breeding grounds are inaccessible to surveyors. Instead, we have examined population trend in this species during the winter by utilising a dataset of synchronised surveys conducted annually across 42 sites between 1997 and 2014. We found that the global population has increased from 535 individuals in 1997 to 2,726 in 2014, an annual increase of 8.0%. Population increases were more pronounced in protected sites and sites with low levels of human disturbance, indicating that control of human disturbance is crucial for conservation in this species. It is of concern that the wintering populations are highly clumped and the two largest populations have ceased to increase since 2012; research to investigate the underlying causes is urgently needed. Synchronised surveys in all known wintering sites should be continued to provide up-to-date data on the global population of this endangered species.

We assessed the conservation status of the Chilean Woodstar Eulidia yarrellii, a small hummingbird endemic to a few desert valleys of northern Chile and southern Peru. Although no population studies had been conducted, this rare species was presumed to have undergone a severe population decline during the past decades. Fieldwork in Chile produced a population estimate for September 2003 of 1,539 individuals (929–2,287; 90% CI), located in just two valleys: Azapa and Vitor. There was no evidence of stable populations elsewhere. Our observations tend to confirm the hypothesis of a past decline and evidence points to three main factors driving that trend: (1) Most natural habitat has disappeared and the species relies mostly on artificial resources for feeding and nesting. (2) The start of heavy use of pesticides in the Azapa valley in the 1960s in order to control the Mediterranean fruit fly and other crop pests coincides with the last reports describing the species as abundant. (3) The irruption in the last two decades of the Peruvian Sheartail Thaumastura cora has apparently exerted serious competition pressure on the species. These findings support the classification of the species as globally Endangered. We describe the main lines of action of the recently approved Recovery Plan for the Chilean Woodstar.

Black Harrier Circus maurus is a rare southern African endemic that may have lost over 50% of its core breeding habitat in the last century as a result of extensive land transformation by agriculture, invasive alien vegetation and urbanization in the Fynbos biome. We partially surveyed both the western (Swartland) and southern (Overberg) coastal plains of south-western South Africa, over 3 years (2000–2002) for breeding Black Harriers, and found a distinctly polarized distribution. Nests were concentrated either along the coastal strip or inland in montane habitats, and generally absent from heavily cultivated and transformed inland plains areas. Limited evidence (direct observations, prey remains) suggests that harriers forage in cereal croplands but generally do not breed in these modified environments. We recorded breeding success at nests in coastal (Dune Thicket) and montane (Mountain Fynbos) habitats. Harriers bred successfully along the coast and nests were aggregated in loose colonies around wetlands. Harriers in montane environments bred poorly, took a wide range of prey, and were subject to high levels of nest predation. We propose that Black Harriers have been displaced from lowland Renosterveld and Fynbos habitats (characterized by better foraging and nesting opportunities), primarily by the advent and spread of cereal agriculture. The conservation and future research implications of this hypothesis are discussed.

The Pantanal of Brazil, one of the largest wetlands in the world, is suffering severe threats, such as forest and grassland clearance on the surrounding plateau, conversion of forests and savannas for cattle ranching and effects of large development projects. We used richness, abundance and composition of bird species in four forest types to propose conservation priorities for the northern Pantanal. Birds from 11 sites (a total of 41 points) were sampled through point counts and mist-netting. In total 215 species were recorded in the forests. Two evergreen forest types (cambarazal and landi) had higher estimates of bird richness and abundance than two dry forest types (carvoeiro and cordilheira). The evergreen forests also had more species exclusive to them and were more similar to each other than the dry forests. Selection of forests to be conserved in the northern Pantanal should give priority to evergreen forests and secondarily to dry forests. Cambarazal should be the first forests to be conserved. If the Pantanal inundation cycle is altered by the construction of hydroelectric dams or the Paraguay-Paraná waterway, cambarazal and landi may no longer become flooded, decreasing local species richness. Before our recommendations are considered for conservation and management decisions, more studies on other groups of organisms should also be taken into consideration, and similar studies should be conducted in other regions of the Pantanal. Conservation of Pantanal forest birds depends on a deeper understanding of their use of several habitats, stronger protection of the forests with higher diversity, and public policies that guarantee the long term maintenance of natural flooding cycles.

In 2001 and 2002, we assessed avian richness in Linggoasri (central Java) where almost all lowland rainforest had been cleared 3 years previously. Bird surveys were carried out in a selectively-logged forest, two regenerating forests and one pine Pinus merkusii plantation. A comparison with a bird list complied at least 3 years prior to logging in Linggoasri showed that 10 lowland bird species may have been extirpated from this area following logging. However, further surveys will be needed to validate these extirpations. A comparison with a list of lowland forest birds of Java shows that only 37% of these occurred in Linggoasri. From the lowland avifauna of Java, sole frugivores and insectivores were less likely to be present in Linggoasri. Smaller, generalist-feeding lowland species, endemic to Java, were more likely to be present in this area. Persisting lowland bird species, however, did not appear to be seriously affected physiologically by habitat degradation, showing no significant loss of body condition or reduction in survival and reproduction. There is an urgent need to preserve the few remaining lowland forest patches of Java and, given the alarming rate of deforestation throughout Southeast Asia, it is critical to conserve adequately large primary lowland forests (e.g. >5,000 ha) if we are to preserve existing lowland avifauna.

Endemic to the islands of Guam and Rota in the Mariana Islands, Mariana Crow Corvus kubaryi is the only corvid in Micronesia. Currently, it survives on Guam only because of translocation of individuals from Rota (1999–2003). Island-wide surveys in 1982 and 1995 on Rota yielded population estimates of 1,348 and 592 respectively, indicating a 56% decrease in only 13 years. A sharp decline in the only viable Mariana Crow population has serious implications for conservation efforts on Rota and for efforts to re-establish the Guam population. However, the validity of the apparent decline has been debated among scientists and government management agencies. We augmented the 1982 and 1995 island-wide VCP surveys with (1) an additional island-wide survey conducted in 1998, and (2) roadside surveys conducted during 1991–1993 and again during 1999–2002. We also outline historical changes in Rota's limestone forest based on aerial photographs and historical information. Data from all surveys indicate a significant decline in the Mariana Crow population. Declines occurred especially along the north-central coast and in the area east of the airport known as As Dudo in the 1990s, but the data indicate an island-wide decline over the entire span of the surveys. Introduced predators, human persecution, and habitat loss and degradation by anthropogenic and natural causes have all contributed to the decline. Long-term preservation of this species will require effective brown treesnake Boiga irregularis control, habitat protection, continued monitoring and research, and increased public education and awareness of Rota's rare and endangered species.

Based on 21,518 km of road surveys, the Argentinian range of the endangered Saffron-cowled Blackbird Xanthopsar flavus now seems confined to two small and disjunct areas in Corrientes and Entre Rios provinces, north-east Argentina. In Corrientes the species inhabits natural pastures and rice-fields; in Entre Rios agropastoral land. Estimates based on numbers of localities and flock sizes suggest a Saffron-cowled Blackbird population of 500–1,000 individuals. This blackbird is highly gregarious. Mean flock size (n = 30, non-breeding period) was 31.9 birds (range: 6–102), and was significantly larger in Entre Rios. In Corrientes foraging blackbird flocks associated mostly with the Black-and-White Monjita Xolmis dominicana, in Entre Rios with the Brown-and-Yellow Marshbird Pseudoleistes virescens. Nesting in both provinces was colonial, with up to 24 nests in a 0.43 ha plot. Nests were built in native and introduced herbaceous plants. The Shiny Cowbird Molothrus bonariensis parasitized 29.2% of the nests in one colony; its eggs and chicks are larger than those of the host. Plausible reasons for the species's extinction or decline at a local level are drainage of wetlands (south-west Buenos Aires Province) and the replacement of pastures with pine and eucalypt plantations in Corrientes. General threats include trapping for the pet trade and increased cowbird parasitism. Flocks below a minimum size may not be viable. An urgent measure of protection would be the fencing and preservation of traditional colony sites.

En base a 21.518 km de censos de rutas parece que la distributión actual del amenazado Tordo Amarillo o Dragón Xanthopsar flavus en Argentina está limitada a dos pequeñas áreas disyuntas en las provincias de Corrientes y Entre Rios. En Corrientes la especie se encuentra en pasturas naturales y arroceras, mientras que en Entre Rios usa campos agrícola-ganaderos. Una estimatión basada en el número de localidades y tamaños de bandadas indicaría una población total de 500 a 1.000 individuos. El tamaño promedio de bando (n = 30, período no reproductive) fue 31,9 individuos (rango 6–102) y es significativamente mayor en Entre Rios. En Corrientes las bandadas se asocian principalmente con la Monjita Dominica Xolmis dominicana, y en Entre Rios con el Pecho Amarillo Pseudoleistes virescens. La nidificación fue colonial en ambas provincias, con una densidad de hasta 24 nidos en 0,43 ha. Los nidos se construyeron en plantas herbáceas nativas y exóticas. El Tordo Renegrido Molothrus bonariensis parasitó 29,4 % de los nidos de una colonia, siendo sus huevos y polios significativamente mayores. Posibles razones para la extinción y declinatión a nivel local de la especie serían el drenaje de humedales (SO de Buenos Aires) y el reemplazo de pasturas por bosques implantados de pinos y eucaliptos (Corrientes). Las amenazas a nivel generales incluyen la captura para el comercio de aves de jaula, y un mayor parasitismo de cría. Una medida urgente de protectión de la especie sería cercar y preservar sitios tradicionales de nidificación.

Staging sites are vital for large-sized migratory cranes, which require high-protein food sources during migration. In this study, we used field surveys and faecal analysis to determine the migration patterns and dietary composition of the globally threatened Red-crowned Crane Grus japonensis population that migrates and stages at the Yellow River Delta Nature Reserve (YRDNR), Eastern China. Analysis of 135 faecal samples collected during the migration season in 2008, 2010 and 2011 showed that 78.8% of the faeces comprised > 90% dry mass of tidal mudflat crab Helice tientsinensis remains, suggesting that tidal mudflat crab was an important source of food for these Red-crowned Cranes. Smaller percentages of two other crab species (Eriocheir sinensis, Macrophthalmus dilatatum), fish remains, ragworms Hediste diversicolor and vegetation were also detected in the faecal samples. Consumption of tidal mudflat crabs was found to increase from autumn through to spring. Surveys of tidal mudflat crabs from YRDNR revealed that female crabs have significantly smaller body size (dry mass) but higher energy reserve ratio (ash-free dry mass per body mass) compared to males. Red-crowned Cranes fed predominantly on small and medium-sized female crabs, with a female to male ratio of 5:1 in the diet, compared with the 1:2 ratio of female to male crabs found within the coastal wetland crab population. Our findings suggest that tidal mudflat crabs represent a critical food source for the migratory Red-crowned Crane population in YRDNR, and future crane conservation strategies should encompass the necessary measures to conserve the tidal mudflat crab population at this staging site.

The past five years have seen the arrival and extremely rapid expansion of West Nile virus (WNV) in the Western Hemisphere. The rapid sweep across North America has permitted little time for developing knowledge of the virus's potential impacts on wildlife in the New World. Given this information gap, we here summarize for the ornithological community what is known or can be anticipated for WNV's effect on bird communities in coming years. Our particular focus is on impacts of WNV on the conservation status of birds, the principal vertebrate reservoir for the virus.