Hostname: page-component-f554764f5-qhdkw Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-04-13T07:36:35.578Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The i-frame and the s-frame: How focusing on individual-level solutions has led behavioral public policy astray

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  05 September 2022

Nick Chater Open the ORCID record for Nick Chater [Opens in a new window]  and
George Loewenstein Open the ORCID record for George Loewenstein [Opens in a new window]
Nick Chater
Affiliation:
Behavioural Science Group, Warwick Business School, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK. [email protected]; https://www.wbs.ac.uk/about/person/nick-chater/
George Loewenstein
Affiliation:
Department of Social and Decision Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. [email protected] https://www.cmu.edu/dietrich/sds/people/faculty/george-loewenstein.html
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An influential line of thinking in behavioral science, to which the two authors have long subscribed, is that many of society's most pressing problems can be addressed cheaply and effectively at the level of the individual, without modifying the system in which the individual operates. We now believe this was a mistake, along with, we suspect, many colleagues in both the academic and policy communities. Results from such interventions have been disappointingly modest. But more importantly, they have guided many (though by no means all) behavioral scientists to frame policy problems in individual, not systemic, terms: To adopt what we call the “i-frame,” rather than the “s-frame.” The difference may be more consequential than i-frame advocates have realized, by deflecting attention and support away from s-frame policies. Indeed, highlighting the i-frame is a long-established objective of corporate opponents of concerted systemic action such as regulation and taxation. We illustrate our argument briefly for six policy problems, and in depth with the examples of climate change, obesity, retirement savings, and pollution from plastic waste. We argue that the most important way in which behavioral scientists can contribute to public policy is by employing their skills to develop and implement value-creating system-level change.

Keywords

addictionbehavior changebehavioral economicsbehavioral public policyclimate changeframingnudgeobesity
Type
Target Article
Information
Behavioral and Brain Sciences , Volume 46 , 2023 , e147
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Article purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abrams, S. (2016). Education and the commercial mindset. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why nations fail: The origins of power, prosperity, and poverty. Crown.Google Scholar
Acquisti, A., Adjerid, I., Balebako, R., Brandimarte, L., Cranor, L. F., Komanduri, S., … Wang, Y. (2017). Nudges for privacy and security: Understanding and assisting users’ choices online. ACM Computing Surveys, 50(3), 1–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Acquisti, A., Brandimarte, L., & Loewenstein, G. (2015). Privacy and human behavior in the age of information. Science (New York, N.Y.), 347(6221), 509–514.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Afshin, A., Penalvo, J. L., Del Gobbo, L., Silva, J., Michaelson, M., O'Flaherty, M., … Mozaffarian, D. (2017). The prospective impact of food pricing on improving dietary consumption: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12(3), e0172277.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Agnew, J. (2013). Australia's retirement system: Strengths, weaknesses, and reforms. Center for Retirement Research Issue Brief, 13-5, Boston College. Retrieved from https://crr.bc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/IB_13-5-508.pdfGoogle Scholar
Akerlof, G. A. (2020). Sins of omission and the practice of economics. Journal of Economic Literature, 58(2), 405–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allcott, H., Diamond, R., Dubé, J. P., Handbury, J., Rahkovsky, I., & Schnell, M. (2019a). Food deserts and the causes of nutritional inequality. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 134(4), 1793–1844.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allcott, H., Lockwood, B. B., & Taubinsky, D. (2019b). Should we tax sugar-sweetened beverages? An overview of theory and evidence. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33(3), 202–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allcott, H., & Rogers, T. (2014). The short-run and long-run effects of behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from energy conservation. American Economic Review, 104(10), 3003–3037.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Argento, R., Bryant, V. L., & Sabelhaus, J. (2015). Early withdrawals from retirement accounts during the great recession. Contemporary Economic Policy, 33(1), 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ariely, D., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (2003). “Coherent arbitrariness”: Stable demand curves without stable preferences. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(1), 73–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aron-Dine, A., Einav, L., & Finkelstein, A. (2013). The RAND health insurance experiment, three decades later. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 27(1), 197–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Attari, S. Z., Krantz, D. H., & Weber, E. U. (2016). Statements about climate researchers’ carbon footprints affect their credibility and the impact of their advice. Climatic Change, 138(1), 325–338.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2016). Blindspot: Hidden biases of good people. Bantam.Google Scholar
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barberis, N. (2018). Psychology-based models of asset prices and trading volume. In Bernheim, B. D., DellaVigna, S., & Laibson, D. (Eds.), Handbook of behavioral economics: Applications and foundations (pp. 79–175). Elsevier.Google Scholar
Barnes, S. B. (2006). A privacy paradox: Social networking in the Unites States. First Monday, 11(9). https://firstmonday.org/article/view/1394/Google Scholar
Barrett, T. (2004). House bans fast-food lawsuits. CNN.com; Law Center. Retrieved from https://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/03/10/fat.lawsuits/Google Scholar
Basol, M., Roozenbeek, J., & van der Linden, S. (2020). Good news about bad news: Gamified inoculation boosts confidence and cognitive immunity against fake news. Journal of Cognition, 3, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateson, M., Nettle, D., & Roberts, G. (2006). Cues of being watched enhance cooperation in a real-world setting. Biology Letters, 2(3), 412–414.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bateson, M., Robinson, R., Abayomi-Cole, T., Greenlees, J., O'Connor, A., & Nettle, D. (2015). Watching eyes on potential litter can reduce littering: Evidence from two field experiments. PeerJ, 3, e1443. Retrieved from https://peerj.com/articles/1443.pdfCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Benartzi, S. (2012). Save more tomorrow: Practical behavioral finance solutions to improve 401(k) plans. Penguin.Google Scholar
Best, R., Burke, P. J., & Jotzo, F. (2020). Carbon pricing efficacy: Cross-country evidence. Environmental and Resource Economics, 77(1), 69–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. (2021, May 19). Report on the economic well-being of U.S. households in 2020 – May 2021. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.federalreserve.gov/publications/2021-economic-well-being-of-us-households-in-2020-retirement.htmGoogle Scholar
Bolton, P., Freixas, X., & Shapiro, J. (2007). Conflicts of interest, information provision, and competition in the financial services industry. Journal of Financial Economics, 85(2), 297–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bombardini, M., & Trebbi, F. (2019). Empirical models of lobbying. Annual Review of Economics, 12, 391–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyce, C. J., Brown, G. D., & Moore, S. C. (2010). Money and happiness: Rank of income, not income, affects life satisfaction. Psychological Science, 21(4), 471–475.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyd, R., Richerson, P. J., & Henrich, J. (2011). The cultural niche: Why social learning is essential for human adaptation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 108(Suppl 2), 10918–10925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brandt, A. M. (2012). Inventing conflicts of interest: A history of tobacco industry tactics. American Journal of Public Health, 102(1), 63–71.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bray, R. M., & Noble, A. M. (1978). Authoritarianism and decisions of mock juries: Evidence of jury bias and group polarization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(12), 1424–1430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brehm, J. W. (1966). A theory of psychological reactance. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Briganti, G., & Le Moine, O. (2020). Artificial intelligence in medicine: Today and tomorrow. Frontiers in Medicine, 7, 27. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2020.00027CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brownell, K. D., Farley, T., Willett, W. C., Popkin, B. M., Chaloupka, F. J., Thompson, J. W., & Ludwig, D. S. (2009). The public health and economic benefits of taxing sugar-sweetened beverages. New England Journal of Medicine, 361(16), 1599–1605.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brownell, K. D., & Horgen, K. B. (2004). Food fight: The inside story of the food industry, America's obesity crisis, and what we can do about it. Contemporary Books.Google Scholar
Brownell, K. D., & Warner, K. E. (2009). The perils of ignoring history: Big tobacco played dirty and millions died. How similar is big food? The Milbank Quarterly, 87(1), 259–294.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bush, G. W. (2003). Public papers of the presidents of the United States: George W. Bush, 2003, book 2, July 1 to December 31, 2003. Office of the Federal Register.Google Scholar
Bushell, S., Buisson, G. S., Workman, M., & Colley, T. (2017). Strategic narratives in climate change: Towards a unifying narrative to address the action gap on climate change. Energy Research & Social Science, 28, 39–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butrica, B. A., & Karamcheva, N. S. (2013). How does 401(k) auto-enrollment relate to the employer match and total compensation? Center for Retirement Research at Boston College, 13–14.Google Scholar
Cain, D., Loewenstein, G., & Moore, D. (2011). When sunlight fails to disinfect: Understanding the perverse effects of disclosing conflicts of interest. Journal of Consumer Research, 37, 836–857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cain, D. M., Loewenstein, G., & Moore, D. A. (2005). The dirt on coming clean: Perverse effects of disclosing conflicts of interest. Journal of Legal Studies, 34(1), 1–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callon, M., Lascousmes, P., & Barthe, Y. (2009). Acting in an uncertain world: An essay on technical democracy. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Camerer, C., Issacharoff, S., Loewenstein, G., O'Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (2003). Regulation for conservatives: Behavioral economics and the case for “asymmetric paternalism.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 151(3), 1211–1254.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T., & Ross, H. L. (1968). The Connecticut crackdown on speeding: Time-series data in quasi-experimental analysis. Law and Society Review, 3(1), 33–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research on teaching. In Gage, N. L. (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 171–246). Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Carattini, S., Kallbekken, S., & Orlov, A. (2019). How to win public support for a global carbon tax. Nature, 565(7739), 289–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Célérier, C., & Vallée, B. (2013). What drives financial complexity? A look into the retail market for structured products. In A look into the retail market for structured products (July 1, 2013). Paris December 2012 Finance Meeting EUROFIDAI-AFFI Paper.Google Scholar
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. (2021, December 14). National health expenditure data. Retrieved February 4, 2022, from https://www.cms.gov/Research-Statistics-Data-and-Systems/Statistics-Trends-and-Reports/NationalHealthExpendData/NationalHealthAccountsHistoricalGoogle Scholar
Charness, G., & Gneezy, U. (2009). Incentives to exercise. Econometrica, 77(3), 909–931.Google Scholar
Chater, N. (2020a). Nudging to net zero? In Shorthouse, R. & Hall, P. (Eds.), Delivering net zero (pp. 188–192). Bright Blue. Retrieved from http://brightblue.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Final-Delivering-net-zero.pdfGoogle Scholar
Chater, N. (2020b). Facing up to the uncertainties of COVID-19. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 439–439.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chater, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2016). The under-appreciated drive for sense-making. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 126, 137–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chater, N., Zeitoun, H., & Melkonyan, T. (2022). The paradox of social interaction: Shared intentionality, we-reasoning, and virtual bargaining. Psychological Review, 129(3), 415.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., & Katz, L. F. (2016). The effects of exposure to better neighborhoods on children: New evidence from the moving to opportunity experiment. American Economic Review, 106(4), 855–902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chetty, R., Looney, A., & Kroft, K. (2009). Salience and taxation: Theory and evidence. American Economic Review, 99(4), 1145–1177.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chimonas, S., & Korenstein, D. (2021). Managing conflicts of interest in healthcare: The new frontier. British Medical Journal, 375, e066576.Google ScholarPubMed
Chockler, H., & Halpern, J. Y. (2004). Responsibility and blame: A structural-model approach. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 22, 93–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choi, J. J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B. C., & Metrick, A. (2004). For better or for worse: Default effects and 401(k) savings behavior. In Wise, D. A. (Ed.), Perspectives on the economics of aging (pp. 81–126). University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing theory. Annual Review of Political Science, 10, 103–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christakis, N. A., & Fowler, J. H. (2007). The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. New England Journal of Medicine, 357(4), 370–379.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. (1984). The psychology of persuasion. Quill William Morrow.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. (2005). Basic social influence is underestimated. Psychological Inquiry, 16(4), 158–161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cinelli, M., De Francisci Morales, G., Galeazzi, A., Quattrociocchi, W., & Starnini, M. (2021). The echo chamber effect on social media. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 118(9), e2023301118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Clark, A. E., Frijters, P., & Shields, M. A. (2008). Relative income, happiness, and utility: An explanation for the Easterlin paradox and other puzzles. Journal of Economic Literature, 46(1), 95–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, C., Davila, A., Regis, M., & Kraus, S. (2020). Predictors of COVID-19 voluntary compliance behaviors: An international investigation. Global Transitions, 2, 76–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, H. M., & Fiore, M. C. (2014). The war against tobacco: 50 years and counting. JAMA, 311(2), 131–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2004). Greed and grievance in civil war. Oxford Economic Papers, 56(4), 563–595.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constantino, S. M., & Weber, E. U. (2021). Decision-making under the deep uncertainty of climate change: The psychological and political agency of narratives. Current Opinion in Psychology, 42, 151–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cook, G. C. (2004). Scurvy in the British Mercantile Marine in the 19th century, and the contribution of the Seamen's Hospital Society. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 80(942), 224–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corkery, M. (2020, February 10). Federal bill seeks to make companies responsible for plastic waste. The New York Times. Retrieved February 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/10/business/recycling-law.htmlGoogle Scholar
Cramton, P., MacKay, D. J., Ockenfels, A., & Stoft, S. (2017). Global carbon pricing: The path to climate cooperation (p. 268). MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Critchley, H. D., & Harrison, N. A. (2013). Visceral influences on brain and behavior. Neuron, 77(4), 624–638.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dana, J., & Loewenstein, G. (2003). A social science perspective on gifts to physicians from industry. JAMA, 290(2), 252–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Education for sale? School choice and the future of American education. The Nation, March. Retrieved from https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/can-the-education-system-survive-betsy-devoss-extreme-school-choice-agenda/Google Scholar
Dear, K., Dutton, K., & Fox, E. (2019). Do ‘watching eyes’ influence antisocial behavior? A systematic review & meta-analysis. Evolution and Human Behavior, 40(3), 269–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deaton, A. (2020). Randomization in the tropics revisited: A theme and eleven variations (No. w27600). National Bureau of Economic Research.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deaton, A., & Cartwright, N. (2018a). Understanding and misunderstanding randomized controlled trials. Social Science and Medicine, 210, 2–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deaton, A., & Cartwright, N. (2018b). Reflections on randomized control trials. Social Science and Medicine, 210, 86–90.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Decision Technology. (2017). Damage by default: The flaw in pensions auto enrolment. Retrieved from https://www.dectech.co.disease-specific/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/dectech_damage_by_default.pdfGoogle Scholar
DellaVigna, S., & Linos, E. (2022). RCTs to scale: Comprehensive evidence from two nudge units. Econometrica, 90(1), 81–116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Meza, D., & Webb, D. C. (2007). Incentive design under loss aversion. Journal of the European Economic Association, 5(1), 66–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Denworth, L. (2020). Masks reveal new social norms: What a difference a plague makes. Scientific American, 14 May 2020.Google Scholar
Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy. (2013, January 22). Smart meters: A guide for households. gov.disease-specific. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.gov.disease-specific/guidance/smart-meters-how-they-workGoogle Scholar
Dimant, E., Clemente, E. G., Pieper, D., Dreber, A., & Gelfand, M. (2022). Politicizing mask-wearing: Predicting the success of behavioral interventions among republicans and democrats in the US. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Disney, K., Le Grand, J., Atkinson, G., & Oliver, A. (2013). From irresponsible knaves to responsible knights for just 5p: Behavioural public policy and the environment. In Oliver, A. (Ed.), Behavioural public policy (pp. 69–87). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dobbin, F., & Kalev, A. (2018). Why diversity training doesn't work: The challenge for industry and academia. Anthropology Now, 10(2), 48–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downs, J. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2011). Behavioral economics and obesity. In Cawley, J. (Ed.), Handbook of the social science of obesity (pp. 138–157). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Draper, D. A., Hurley, R. E., Lesser, C. S., & Strunk, B. C. (2002). The changing face of managed care. Health Affairs, 21(1), 11–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dubos, R. (1965). Man adapting. Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. Scribner.Google Scholar
Dunaway, F. (2017). The “Crying Indian” ad that fooled the environmental movement. The Chicago Tribune, November 21, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-indian-crying-environment-ads-pollution-1123-20171113-story.htmlGoogle Scholar
Duncker, K. (1945). On problem solving. Psychological Monographs, 58(5), 1–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.Google Scholar
EdBuild. (2019). 23 billion. Retrieved from https://edbuild.org/content/23-billionGoogle Scholar
Efferson, C., Lalive, R., & Fehr, E. (2008). The coevolution of cultural groups and ingroup favoritism. Science (New York, N.Y.), 321(5897), 1844–1849.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elster, J., & Skog, O. J. (Eds.). (1999). Getting hooked: Rationality and addiction. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Energy Transition Commission. (2021). Keeping 1.5°C alive: Actions for the 2020s. London. Retrieved from https://www.energy-transitions.org/publications/keeping-1-5-alive/Google Scholar
Engelhardt, G. V. (2011). State wage-payment laws, the Pension Protection Act of 2006, and 401(k) saving behavior. Economics Letters, 113(3), 237–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fessler, D. M., Pisor, A. C., & Holbrook, C. (2017). Political orientation predicts credulity regarding putative hazards. Psychological Science, 28(5), 651–660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, M., & Keller, J. (2017). What explains US mass shootings? International comparisons suggest an answer. The New York Times. November 7.Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1985). The demand for unobservable and other nonpositional goods. The American Economic Review, 75(1), 101–116.Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (1988). Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. WW Norton.Google Scholar
Frank, R. H. (2005). Positional externalities cause large and preventable welfare losses. American Economic Review, 95(2), 137–141.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frank, R. H. (2008). Should public policy respond to positional externalities? Journal of Public Economics, 92(8–9), 1777–1786.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, S., & Loewenstein, G. (1999). Hedonic adaptation. In Kahneman, D., Diener, E., & Schwarz, N. (Eds.), Well-being. The foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 302–329). Russell Sage.Google Scholar
Furman, J. (2016). Applying behavioral sciences in the service of four major economic problems. Behavioral Science & Policy, 2(2), 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gai, P., & Kapadia, S. (2010). Contagion in financial networks. Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 466(2120), 2401–2423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gardiner, A. (2017, October 16). NYC to experiment with Nobel prize-winning “nudges” to curb gun violence. DNAinfo New York. Retrieved February 4, 2022, from https://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20171013/financial-district/gun-violence-richard-thaler-nudge-behavioral-science-ideas42-nobel-prize/Google Scholar
Gawande, A. (2009). The checklist manifesto. Metropolitan Books.Google Scholar
Gawronski, B. (2004). Theory-based bias correction in dispositional inference: The fundamental attribution error is dead, long live the correspondence bias. European Review of Social Psychology, 15(1), 183–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Giesler, M., & Veresiu, E. (2014). Creating the responsible consumer: Moralistic governance regimes and consumer subjectivity. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(3), 840–857.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilbert, D. T., & Malone, P. S. (1995). The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin, 117(1), 21–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilbert, D. T., Tafarodi, R. W., & Malone, P. S. (1993). You can't not believe everything you read. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(2), 221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilovich, T., & Eibach, R. (2001). The fundamental attribution error where it really counts. Psychological Inquiry, 12(1), 23–26.Google Scholar
Ginsburg, P., & Lieberman, S. M. (2021, August 31). Government regulated or negotiated drug prices: Key design considerations. Brookings. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.brookings.edu/essay/government-regulated-or-negotiated-drug-prices-key-design-considerations/Google Scholar
Giridharadas, A. (2019). Winners take all: The elite charade of changing the world. Vintage.Google Scholar
Gneezy, U., Meier, S., & Rey-Biel, P. (2011). When and why incentives (don't) work to modify behavior. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 25(4), 191–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldberg, M. H., Gustafson, A., Ballew, M. T., Rosenthal, S. A., & Leiserowitz, A. (2021). Identifying the most important predictors of support for climate policy in the United States. Behavioural Public Policy, 5(4), 480–502.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldin, J. (2018). Tax benefit complexity and take-up: Lessons from the earned income tax credit. Tax Law Review, 72, 59–110.Google Scholar
Golman, R., Hagmann, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2017). Information avoidance. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(1), 96–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodall, C. (2007). How to live a low-carbon life: The individual's guide to stopping climate change. Earthscan.Google Scholar
Gray, J. A. (1987). The psychology of fear and stress (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Greene, M. S., & Chambers, R. A. (2015). Pseudoaddiction: Fact or fiction? An investigation of the medical literature. Current Addiction Reports, 2(4), 310–317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Greenwald, A. G., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2014). With malice toward none and charity for some: Ingroup favoritism enables discrimination. American Psychologist, 69(7), 669–684. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036056CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grossman, G., & Helpman, E. (1994). Protection for sale. American Economic Review, 84, 833–850.Google Scholar
Gurney, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2020). Filling in the blanks: What restaurant patrons assume about missing sanitation inspection grades. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 39(3), 266–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hagmann, D., Ho, E. H., & Loewenstein, G. (2019). Nudging out support for a carbon tax. Nature Climate Change, 9(6), 484–489.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haley, K. J., & Fessler, D. M. (2005). Nobody's watching?: Subtle cues affect generosity in an anonymous economic game. Evolution and Human Behavior, 26(3), 245–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Halpern, D. (2015). Inside the nudge unit: How small changes can make a big difference. Penguin.Google Scholar
Halpern, D., & Mason, D. (2015). Radical incrementalism. Evaluation, 21(2), 143–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hanisch, C. (2000). Is extended producer responsibility effective? Environmental Science & Technology, 34(7), 170A–175A.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hanke, M., Huber, J., Kirchler, M., & Sutter, M. (2010). The economic consequences of a Tobin tax – An experimental analysis. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 74(1–2), 58–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansen, J. (2004). Defusing the global warming time bomb. Scientific American, 290(3), 68–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hansen, P. G. (2018). What are we forgetting? Behavioural Public Policy, 2(2), 190–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harris, J. L., Bargh, J. A., & Brownell, K. D. (2009). Priming effects of television food advertising on eating behavior. Health Psychology, 28(4), 404–413.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hayek, F. A. (1945). The use of knowledge in society. The American Economic Review, 35(4), 519–530.Google Scholar
Haynes, L., Service, O., Goldacre, B., & Torgersen, D. (2012). Test, learn, adapt. Developing public policy with randomised controlled trials. Cabinet Office: Behavioural Insights Team, UK. Retrieved from https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62529/TLA-1906126.pdfGoogle Scholar
Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., & Klayman, J. (1998). Cognitive repairs: How organizational practices can compensate for individual shortcomings. Review of Organizational Behavior, 20, 1–38.Google Scholar
Heather, N., & Segal, G. (Eds.). (2017). Addiction and choice: Rethinking the relationship. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Heller, S. B., Shah, A. K., Guryan, J., Ludwig, J., Mullainathan, S., & Pollack, H. A. (2017). Thinking, fast and slow? Some field experiments to reduce crime and dropout in Chicago. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 132(1), 1–54.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, J. O., Wyatt, H. R., & Peters, J. C. (2012). Energy balance and obesity. Circulation, 126(1), 126–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hinkel, J., Mangalagiu, D., Bisaro, A., & Tàbara, J. D. (2020). Transformative narratives for climate action. Climatic Change, 160(4), 495–506.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hirsch, F. (1976). The social limits to growth. Routledge & Kegan Paul.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hochanadel, A., & Finamore, D. (2015). Fixed and growth mindset in education and how grit helps students persist in the face of adversity. Journal of International Education Research (JIER), 11(1), 47–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homonoff, T. A. (2018). Can small incentives have large effects? The impact of taxes versus bonuses on disposable bag use. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 10(4), 177–210.Google Scholar
Huddy, L. (2001). From social to political identity: A critical examination of social identity theory. Political Psychology, 22(1), 127–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurley, S. (2004). Imitation, media violence, and freedom of speech. Philosophical Studies, 117(1), 165–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurley, S., & Chater, N. (Eds.). (2005). Perspectives on imitation: From neuroscience to social science (2 volumes). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Igan, M. D. O., & Lambert, T. (2019). Bank lobbying: Regulatory capture and beyond. IMF Working Paper. Retrieved from https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2019/08/09/Bank-Lobbying-Regulatory-Capture-and-Beyond-45735CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imhoff, R., & Lamberty, P. (2020). A bioweapon or a hoax? The link between distinct conspiracy beliefs about the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak and pandemic behavior. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 11(8), 1110–1118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iyengar, S., & Westwood, S. J. (2015). Fear and loathing across party lines: New evidence on group polarization. American Journal of Political Science, 59(3), 690–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobs, A., & Richtel, M. (2017). How big business got Brazil hooked on junk food. New York Times, September 16, 2017. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2017/09/16/health/brazil-obesity-nestle.htmlGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, L. (2012, February 10). Require automatic enrollment in 401(k) plans. PolitiFact. Retrieved February 4, 2022, from https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/21/require-automatic-enrollment-in-401k-plans/Google Scholar
Jägemann, C., Fürsch, M., Hagspiel, S., & Nagl, S. (2013). Decarbonizing Europe's power sector by 2050 – Analyzing the economic implications of alternative decarbonization pathways. Energy Economics, 40, 622–636.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink: A psychological study of foreign-policy decisions and fiascoes. Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Janusch, N., Kroll, S., Goemans, C., Cherry, T. L., & Kallbekken, S. (2021). Learning to accept welfare-enhancing policies: An experimental investigation of congestion pricing. Experimental Economics, 24(1), 59–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jeppson, C. T., Smith, W. W., & Stone, R. S. (2009). CEO compensation and firm performance: Is there any relationship? Journal of Business and Economics Research, 7(11), 81–93.Google Scholar
John, L., Loewenstein, G., & Volpp, K. (2012). Empirical observations on longer-term use of incentives for weight loss. Preventive Medicine, 55(1), S68–S74.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, E. J. (2022). The elements of choice: Why the way we decide matters. Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Johnson, E. J., Hassin, R., Baker, T., Bajger, A. T., & Treuer, G. (2013). Can consumers make affordable care affordable? The value of choice architecture. PLoS ONE, 8(12), e81521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Johnson, S. G., Bilovich, A., & Tuckett, D. (2023). Conviction narrative theory: A theory of choice under radical uncertainty. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 46, e82. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X22001157CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1983). Mental models. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jones, E. E., & Davis, K. E. (1965). From acts to dispositions the attribution process in person perception. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 219–266). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Jue, J. J. S., Press, M. J., McDonald, D., Volpp, K. G., Asch, D. A., Mitra, N., … Loewenstein, G. (2012). The impact of price discounts and calorie messaging on beverage consumption: A multi-site field study. Preventive Medicine, 55(6), 629–633.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kahneman, D. (2013). Daniel Kahneman's gripe with behavioral economics (interview of Jesse Singal). The Daily Beast, 26 April 2013. Retrieved from https://www.thedailybeast.com/daniel-kahnemans-gripe-with-behavioral-economicsGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D., Slovic, P., & Tversky, A. (Eds.). (1982). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalkstein, D. A., De Lima, F., Brady, S. T., Rozek, C. S., Johnson, E. J., & Walton, G. M. (2022). Defaults are not a panacea: Distinguishing between default effects on choices and on outcomes. Behavioural Public Policy, 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2022.24CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kallbekken, S., Kroll, S., & Cherry, T. L. (2011). Do you not like Pigou, or do you not understand him? Tax aversion and revenue recycling in the lab. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 62(1), 53–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kanter, G. P., & Loewenstein, G. (2019). Evaluating open payments. JAMA, 322(5), 401–402.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, R., & Allen, T. J. (1982). Investigating the not invented here (NIH) syndrome: A look at the performance, tenure, and communication patterns of 50 R&D project groups. R&D Management, 12(1), 7–20.Google Scholar
Keep Britain Tidy. (2015). Case study: Green footprints. Retrieved February 9, 2022 from https://www.keepbritaintidy.org/sites/default/files/resources/KBT_CFSI_Green_Footprints_Case_Study_2015.pdfGoogle Scholar
Khatri, N., Brown, G. D., & Hicks, L. L. (2009). From a blame culture to a just culture in health care. Health Care Management Review, 34(4), 312–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kolodny, A. (2020). How FDA failures contributed to the opioid crisis. AMA Journal of Ethics, 22(8), 743–750.Google Scholar
Kornmeier, J., & Bach, M. (2012). Ambiguous figures – What happens in the brain when perception changes but not the stimulus. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108(3), 480–498.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lagnado, D. A., Gerstenberg, T., & Zultan, R. I. (2013). Causal responsibility and counterfactuals. Cognitive Science, 37(6), 1036–1073.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laibson, D. (1997). Golden eggs and hyperbolic discounting. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(2), 443–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laibson, D. (2018). Private paternalism, the commitment puzzle, and model-free equilibrium. AEA Papers and Proceedings, 108, 1–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lakoff, G. (2014). The all new don't think of an elephant!: Know your values and frame the debate. Chelsea Green.Google Scholar
Lamb, W. F., Mattioli, G., Levi, S., Roberts, J. T., Capstick, S., Creutzig, F., … Steinberger, J. K. (2020). Discourses of climate delay. Global Sustainability, 3, 1–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laming, D. (1997). The measurement of sensation. Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larkin, I., Ang, D., Steinhart, J., Chao, M., Patterson, M., Sah, S., … Loewenstein, G. (2017). Association between academic medical center pharmaceutical detailing policies and physician prescribing. Journal of the American Medical Association, 317(17), 1785–1795.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Learmonth, I. (2020). How the “carbon footprint” originated as a PR campaign for big oil. Thred, 23 September, 2020. Retrieved from https://thred.com/change/how-the-carbon-footprint-originated-as-a-pr-campaign-for-big-oil/Google Scholar
Leigh-Hunt, N., Bagguley, D., Bash, K., Turner, V., Turnbull, S., Valtorta, N., & Caan, W. (2017). An overview of systematic reviews on the public health consequences of social isolation and loneliness. Public Health, 152, 157–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lesser, C. S., Ginsburg, P. B., & Devers, K. J. (2003). The end of an era: What became of the “managed care revolution” in 2001? Health Services Research, 38(1p2), 337–355.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leventhal, H. (1970). Findings and theory in the study of fear communications. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 5, 119–186.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liebe, U., Gewinner, J., & Diekmann, A. (2021). Large and persistent effects of green energy defaults in the household and business sectors. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(5), 576–585.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lobel, J., & Loewenstein, G. (2005). Emote control: The substitution of symbol for substance in foreign policy and international law. Chicago Kent Law Review, 80, 1045.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 65(3), 272–292.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G. (2006). The pleasures and pains of information. Science (New York, N.Y.), 312, 704–706.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loewenstein, G., Brennan, T., & Volpp, K. G. (2007). Asymmetric paternalism to improve health behaviors. JAMA, 298(20), 2415–2417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loewenstein, G., & Chater, N. (2017). Putting nudges in perspective. Behavioural Public Policy, 1(1), 26–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Loewenstein, G., Read, D., & Baumeister, R. F. (Eds.). (2003). Time and decision: Economic and psychological perspectives of intertemporal choice. Russell Sage.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G., Sah, S., & Cain, D. M. (2012). The unintended consequences of conflict of interest disclosure. Journal of the American Medical Association, 307(7), 669–670.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loewenstein, G., & Schwartz, D. (2010). Nothing to fear but a lack of fear: Climate change and the fear deficit. G8 Magazine, pp. 60–62.Google Scholar
Loewenstein, G., Sunstein, C. R., & Golman, R. (2014). Disclosure: Psychology changes everything. Annual Review of Economics, 6(1), 391–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luca, M., & Bazerman, M. H. (2021). The power of experiments: Decision making in a data-driven world. MIT Press.Google Scholar
Lusardi, A., & Mitchell, O. S. (2014). The economic importance of financial literacy: Theory and evidence. Journal of Economic Literature, 52(1), 5–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacKinnon, A. J., & Wearing, A. J. (1991). Feedback and the forecasting of exponential change. Acta Psychologica, 76(2), 177–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madrian, B. C., & Shea, D. F. (2001). The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation and savings behavior. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(4), 1149–1187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maier, M., Bartoš, F., Stanley, T. D., Shanks, D. R., Harris, A. J., & Wagenmakers, E. J. (2022). No evidence for nudging after adjusting for publication bias. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 119(31), e2200300119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maki, A., Carrico, A. R., Raimi, K. T., Truelove, H. B., Araujo, B., & Yeung, K. L. (2019). Meta-analysis of pro-environmental behaviour spillover. Nature Sustainability, 2(4), 307–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Malle, B. F. (2006). The actor–observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 895–919.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mandell, L., & Klein, L. S. (2009). The impact of financial literacy education on subsequent financial behavior. Journal of Financial Counseling and Planning, 20(1), 25–24.Google Scholar
Mann, M. E. (2021). The new climate war: The fight to take back our planet. Hachette.Google Scholar
March, J. G., & Olsen, J. P. (2008). The logic of appropriateness. In Goodin, R. E., Moran, M., & Rein, M. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of public policy (pp. 689–708). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Marewski, J. N., & Gigerenzer, G. (2022). Heuristic decision making in medicine. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 14(1), 77–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Markard, J. (2018). The next phase of the energy transition and its implications for research and policy. Nature Energy, 3(8), 628–633.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marmot, M. (2004). Status syndrome. Significance, 1(4), 150–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, G. (2015). Don't even think about it: Why our brains are wired to ignore climate change. Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Marteau, T. M., Hollands, G. J., & Fletcher, P. C. (2012). Changing human behavior to prevent disease: The importance of targeting automatic processes. Science (New York, N.Y.), 337(6101), 1492–1495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, S. J., Goldstein, N., & Cialdini, R. (2014). The small big: Small changes that spark big influence. Hachette.Google Scholar
Mayer, J. (2017). Dark money: The hidden history of the billionaires behind the rise of the radical right. Anchor.Google Scholar
Mazar, A., Tomaino, G., Carmon, Z., & Wood, W. (2021). Habits to save our habitat: Using the psychology of habits to promote sustainability. Behavioral Science and Policy, 7(2), 75–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mazar, A., Tomaino, G., Carmon, Z., & Wood, W. (2022). Americans discount the effect of friction on voter turnout. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2206072119CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mazar, A., & Wood, W. (2022). Illusory feelings, elusive habits: People overlook habits in explanations of behavior. Psychological Science, 33(4), 563–578.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McClure, S. M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2004). Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science (New York, N.Y.), 306(5695), 503–507.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mercier, H., & Landemore, H. (2012). Reasoning is for arguing: Understanding the successes and failures of deliberation. Political Psychology, 33(2), 243–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Merrow, J. (2017). Addicted to reform: A 12-step program to rescue public education. New Press.Google Scholar
Mertens, S., Herberz, M., Hahnel, U. J., & Brosch, T. (2022). The effectiveness of nudging: A meta-analysis of choice architecture interventions across behavioral domains. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 119(1), e2107346118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, D. T., & McFarland, C. (1991). When social comparison goes awry: The case of pluralistic ignorance. In Suls, J. & Wills, T. A. (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 287–313). Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Miller, G. J. (2005). The political evolution of principal–agent models. Annual Review of Political Science, 8, 203–225.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morrissey, M. (2019, December 10). The state of American retirement savings: How the shift to 401(k)s has increased gaps in retirement preparedness based on income, race, ethnicity, education, and marital status. Economic Policy Institute. Retrieved February 3, 2022, from https://www.epi.org/publication/the-state-of-american-retirement-savings/Google Scholar
Moss, M. (2013). The extraordinary science of addictive junk food. New York Times, February 20, 2013.Google Scholar
Murray, R., Caulier-Grice, J., & Mulgan, G. (2010). The open book of social innovation. Nesta.Google Scholar
Nagin, D. S., & Pepper, J. V. (2012). Deterrence and the death penalty. National Academies Press.Google Scholar
National Conference of State Legislatures. (2021, February 8). State plastic bag legislation. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.ncsl.org/research/environment-and-natural-resources/plastic-bag-legislation.aspxGoogle Scholar
Nestle, M., & Jacobson, M. F. (2000). Halting the obesity epidemic: A public health policy approach. Public Health Reports, 115(1), 12–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newey, S. (2020). Conspiracies of pandemics past: The history of disease and denial. The Daily Telegraph, November 5, 2020. Retrieved from https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/science-and-disease/conspiracies-pandemics-past-history-disease-denial/Google Scholar
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Nuccitelli, D. (2018). Canada passed a carbon tax that will give most Canadians more money. The Guardian. October 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Obama, B. (2020). A president looks back on his toughest fight: The story behind the Obama administration's most enduring – and most contested – legacy: Reforming American health care. New Yorker. October 26.Google Scholar
O'Connor, A. (2015). Coca-Cola funds scientists who shift blame for obesity away from bad diets. New York Times, August 9, 2015.Google Scholar
O'Donoghue, T., & Rabin, M. (1999). Doing it now or later. American Economic Review, 89(1), 103–124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
OECD. (2020). Pension markets in focus 2020. Retrieved February 3, 2022 from https://www.oecd.org/daf/fin/private-pensions/Pension-Markets-in-Focus-2020.pdfGoogle Scholar
Oliver, A. J. (2013). Behavioural public policy. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Oreskes, N., & Conway, E. M. (2011). Merchants of doubt: How a handful of scientists obscured the truth on issues from tobacco smoke to global warming. Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Packer, D. J. (2009). Avoiding groupthink: Whereas weakly identified members remain silent, strongly identified members dissent about collective problems. Psychological Science, 20(5), 546–548.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parfit, D. (1984). Reasons and persons. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Pashler, H., Johnston, J. C., & Ruthruff, E. (2001). Attention and performance. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 629.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J. G., & Rand, D. G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31(7), 770–780.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Perez-Ferrer, C., Auchincloss, A. H., de Menezes, M. C., Kroker-Lobos, M. F., de Oliveira Cardoso, L., & Barrientos-Gutierrez, T. (2019). The food environment in Latin America: A systematic review with a focus on environments relevant to obesity and related chronic diseases. Public Health Nutrition, 22(18), 3447–3464.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pickett, K. E., & Wilkinson, R. G. (2015). Income inequality and health: A causal review. Social Science and Medicine, 128, 316–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polanyi, M. (1941). The growth of thought in society. Economica, 8(32), 428–456.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (2002). If at first you don't succeed: False hopes of self-change. American Psychologist, 57(9), 677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Powell, L. M., & Leider, J. (2021). Impact of a sugar-sweetened beverage tax two-year post-tax implementation in Seattle, Washington, United States. Journal of Public Health Policy, 42(4), 574–588.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proctor, R. N., & Proctor, R. (2011). Golden holocaust: Origins of the cigarette catastrophe and the case for abolition. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: America's declining social capital. Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Rachlin, H., & Green, L. (1972). Commitment, choice and self-control. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 17(1), 15–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rai, T. S., & Fiske, A. P. (2011). Moral psychology is relationship regulation: Moral motives for unity, hierarchy, equality, and proportionality. Psychological Review, 118(1), 57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raimi, K. T. (2021). How to encourage pro-environmental behaviors without crowding out public support for climate policies. Behavioral Science & Policy, 7(2), 101–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redmond, P., Solomon, J., & Lin, M. (2007). Can incentives for healthy behavior improve health and hold down Medicaid costs? Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved from https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/6-1-07health.pdfGoogle Scholar
Riis, J., Loewenstein, G., Baron, J., Jepson, C., Fagerlin, A., & Ubel, P. A. (2005). Ignorance of hedonic adaptation to hemodialysis: A study using ecological momentary assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131(1), 3–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rinscheid, A., Pianta, S., & Weber, E. U. (2021). What shapes public support for climate change mitigation policies? The role of descriptive social norms and elite cues. Behavioural Public Policy, 5(4), 503–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robinson, T. E., & Berridge, K. C. (2000). The psychology and neurobiology of addiction: An incentive–sensitization view. Addiction, 95(8s2), 91–117.Google ScholarPubMed
Rogoff, K. (2022). What's the crypto regulation endgame? Project Syndicate, June 6. Retrieved from https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/will-advanced-economies-ban-cryptocurrencies-by-kenneth-rogoff-2022-06Google Scholar
Rollwage, M., Zmigrod, L., de-Wit, L., Dolan, R. J., & Fleming, S. M. (2019). What underlies political polarization? A manifesto for computational political psychology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 23(10), 820–822.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Roozenbeek, J., Freeman, A. L., & van der Linden, S. (2021). How accurate are accuracy-nudge interventions? A preregistered direct replication of Pennycook et al. (2020). Psychological Science, 32(7), 1169–1178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In Berkowitz, L. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 173–220). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Sabini, J., Siepmann, M., & Stein, J. (2001). The really fundamental attribution error in social psychological research. Psychological Inquiry, 12(1), 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Safire, W. (2008). On language: Footprint. New York Times Magazine, February 17, 2008. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20130430210302/; http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/17/magazine/17wwln-safire-t.htmlGoogle Scholar
Sah, S., & Read, D. (2020). Mind the (information) gap: Strategic nondisclosure by marketers and interventions to increase consumer deliberation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 26(3), 432–452.Google ScholarPubMed
Samuelson, P. (2021). The push for stricter rules for internet platforms. Communications of the ACM, 64(3), 26–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samuelson, W., & Zeckhauser, R. (1988). Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1(1), 7–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanderson, I. (2002). Evaluation, policy learning and evidence-based policy making. Public Administration, 80(1), 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scheibehenne, B., Greifeneder, R., & Todd, P. M. (2010). Can there ever be too many options? A meta-analytic review of choice overload. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(3), 409–425.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schüll, N. D. (2012). Addiction by design. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Schultz, P. W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2007). The constructive, destructive, and reconstructive power of social norms. Psychological Science, 18(5), 429–434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schultz, W., Dayan, P., & Montague, P. R. (1997). A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science (New York, N.Y.), 275(5306), 1593–1599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schulz, L. O., Bennett, P. H., Ravussin, E., Kidd, J. R., Kidd, K. K., Esparza, J., & Valencia, M. E. (2006). Effects of traditional and western environments on prevalence of type 2 diabetes in Pima Indians in Mexico and the US. Diabetes Care, 29(8), 1866–1871.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwarcz, D. (2008). Differential compensation and the race to the bottom in consumer insurance markets. Connecticut Insurance Law Journal, 15(2), 723–753.Google Scholar
Schwartz, D., & Loewenstein, G. (2017). The chill of the moment: Emotions and pro-environmental behavior. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 36(2), 255–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schwartz, J., Riis, J., Elbel, B., & Ariely, D. (2012). Inviting consumers to downsize fast-food portions significantly reduces calorie consumption. Health Affairs, 31(2), 399–407.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scott, J., & Holme, J. J. (2016). The political economy of market-based educational policies: Race and reform in urban school districts, 1915 to 2016. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 250–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherman, D. K., Shteyn, M. F., Han, H., & Van Boven, L. (2021). The exchange between citizens and elected officials: A social psychological framework for citizen climate activists. Behavioural Public Policy, 5(4), 576–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiller, R. J. (2000). Irrational exuberance. Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. BF Skinner Foundation. Appleton-Century.Google Scholar
Social Security Administration. (2021). 2021 Social security changes. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.ssa.gov/news/press/factsheets/colafacts2021.pdfGoogle Scholar
Social Security Administration. (2022). Office of the Chief Actuary's estimates of proposals to change the Social Security program or the SSI program. Proposals to change Social Security. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/solvency/Google Scholar
Solman, G. (2008). BP: Coloring public opinion. Adweek. January 14, 2008.Google Scholar
Sornette, D., & Von der Becke, S. (2011). Crashes and high frequency trading. Swiss Finance Institute Research Paper, (pp. 11–63). Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1976249CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steele, C. M. (1998). Stereotyping and its threat are real. American Psychologist, 53(6), 680–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, S. (2019). How war made the cigarette. The New Republic. September 25.Google Scholar
Stewart, N., Brown, G. D., & Chater, N. (2005). Absolute identification by relative judgment. Psychological Review, 112(4), 881–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sugden, R. (1989). Spontaneous order. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 3(4), 85–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. (2022b). The administrative state, inside out. Working paper. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4069458CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (1999). The law of group polarization. University of Chicago Law School, John M. Olin Law & Economics Working Paper 91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2020). Sludge audits. Behavioural Public Policy, 6(4), 654–673.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R. (2021). Green defaults can combat climate change. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(5), 548–549.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sunstein, C. R. (2022a). The rhetoric of reaction redux. Working paper. Retrieved from https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4133924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sunstein, C. R., & Thaler, R. H. (2003). Libertarian paternalism is not an oxymoron. The University of Chicago Law Review, 70(4), 1159–1202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.Google Scholar
Swartz, J. (2011). Consumer views on nutrition labels that contextualize energy content with physical activity and calorie labeling on quick-service restaurant menu boards (Masters dissertation), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.17615/dp7b-4611CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G. & Worchel, S. (Eds.), Organizational identity: A reader (pp. 33–37). Brooks/Cole.Google Scholar
Taylor, R. (2019). Plastic bag bans can backfire if consumers just use other plastics instead. The Conversation (March 14, 2019). Retrieved from https://theconversation.com/plastic-bag-bans-can-backfire-if-consumers-just-use-other-plastics-instead-110571Google Scholar
Taylor, S., & Asmundson, G. J. (2021). Negative attitudes about facemasks during the COVID-19 pandemic: The dual importance of perceived ineffectiveness and psychological reactance. PLoS ONE, 16(2), e0246317.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Thaler, R. H. (2009, June 19). Is your 401(k) now a 201(K)? Big think. Retrieved February 4, 2022, from https://bigthink.com/videos/is-your-401k-now-a-201k/Google Scholar
Thaler, R. H. (2018). Nudge, not sludge. Science (New York, N.Y.), 361(6401), 431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Benartzi, S. (2004). Save more tomorrow™: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving. Journal of Political Economy, 112(S1), S164–S187.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2003). Libertarian paternalism. American Economic Review, 93(2), 175–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2008). Nudge: Improving decisions about health, wealth, and happiness. Penguin.Google Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Sunstein, C. R. (2021). Nudge: The final edition. Penguin.Google Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Tucker, W. (2013). Smarter information, smarter consumers. Harvard Business Review, 91(1), 44–54.Google Scholar
Thøgersen, J., & Crompton, T. (2009). Simple and painless? The limitations of spillover in environmental campaigning. Journal of Consumer Policy, 32(2), 141–163.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Toma, M., & Bell, E. (2022). Understanding and improving policymakers’ sensitivity to program impact. Working Paper. Retrieved from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qkStG3Y-FZvizfUzQwUP2GkD7hzMlM-I/viewGoogle Scholar
Transamerica Center for Retirement Studies. (2020, September). Retirees and retirement amid COVID-19: 20th Annual transamerica retirement survey of retirees. Retrieved February 2, 2022, from https://www.transamericacenter.org/docs/default-source/retirees-survey/tcrs2020_sr_retiree-retirement-amid-covid19.pdfGoogle Scholar
Tremblay, L., & Schultz, W. (1999). Relative reward preference in primate orbitofrontal cortex. Nature, 398(6729), 704–708.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Truelove, H. B., Carrico, A. R., Weber, E. U., Raimi, K. T., & Vandenbergh, M. P. (2014). Positive and negative spillover of pro-environmental behavior: An integrative review and theoretical framework. Global Environmental Change, 29, 127–138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1991). Loss aversion in riskless choice: A reference-dependent model. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(4), 1039–1061.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ubel, P. A., Loewenstein, G., & Jepson, C. (2005). Disability and sunshine: Can hedonic predictions be improved by drawing attention to focusing illusions or emotional adaptation? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(2), 111–123.Google ScholarPubMed
UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report, 2020: Inclusion and education: All means all. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.Google Scholar
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2022). Green building standards. EPA.gov. Retrieved February 9, 2022, from https://www.epa.gov/smartgrowth/green-building-standardsGoogle Scholar
Utz, C., Degeling, M., Fahl, S., Schaub, F., & Holz, T. (2019, November). (Un)informed consent: Studying GDPR consent notices in the field. In Proceedings of the 2019 ACM SIGSAC Conference on Computer and Communications Security (pp. 973–990).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Linden, S., Leiserowitz, A., Rosenthal, S., & Maibach, E. (2017). Inoculating the public against misinformation about climate change. Global Challenges, 1(2), 1600008.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
van der Linden, S., Roozenbeek, J., & Compton, J. (2020). Inoculating against fake news about COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2928.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
VanEpps, E. M., Downs, J. S., & Loewenstein, G. (2016). Advance ordering for healthier eating? Field experiments on the relationship between time delay and meal healthfulness. Journal of Marketing Research, LIII, 369–380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veblen, T. (1899). The theory of the leisure class: An economic study of institutions. Macmillan.Google Scholar
Verdejo-Garcia, A., Lorenzetti, V., Manning, V., Piercy, H., Bruno, R., Hester, R., … Ekhtiari, H. (2019). A roadmap for integrating neuroscience into addiction treatment: A consensus of the neuroscience interest group of the international society of addiction medicine. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 877. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verplanken, B., & Wood, W. (2006). Interventions to break and create consumer habits. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 25(1), 90–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vlaev, I., Seymour, B., Dolan, R. J., & Chater, N. (2009). The price of pain and the value of suffering. Psychological Science, 20(3), 309–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009). Addiction and free will. Addiction Research and Theory, 17(3), 231–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volkow, N. D., & Boyle, M. (2018). Neuroscience of addiction: Relevance to prevention and treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(8), 729–740.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volpp, K. G., John, L. K., Troxel, A. B., Norton, L., Fassbender, J., & Loewenstein, G. (2008). Financial incentive-based approaches for weight loss: A randomized trial. JAMA, 300(22), 2631–2637.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Volpp, K. G., Troxel, A. B., Mehta, S. J., Norton, L., Zhu, J., Lim, R., … Asch, D. A. (2017). Effect of electronic reminders, financial incentives, and social support on outcomes after myocardial infarction: The heart strong randomized clinical trial. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(8), 1093–1101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walker, D., Smith, K. A., & Vul, E. (2015). “The fundamental attribution error” is rational in an uncertain world. In Noelle, D. C., Dale, R., Warlaumont, A. S., Yoshimi, J., Matlock, T., Jennings, C. D., & Maglio, P. P. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 37th annual meeting of the cognitive science society (pp. 866–871). Cognitive Science Society.Google Scholar
Walls, M. (2006). EPR policies and product design: Economic theory and selected case studies. Working Group on Waste Prevention and Recycling. Environment Directorate. Environmental Policy Committee.Google Scholar
Weber, E. U. (1997). Perception and expectation of climate change: Precondition for economic and technological adaptation. In Bazerman, M. H., Messick, D. M., Tensbrunsel, A., & Wade-Benzoni, K. (Eds.), Psychological perspectives to environmental and ethical issues in management (pp. 314–341). Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Weber, E. U. (2004). Perception matters: Psychophysics for economists. In Carillo, J. & Brocas, I. (Eds.), The psychology of economic decisions: Volume 2: Reasons and choices (pp. 163–176). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Weber, E. U. (2006). Experience-based and description-based perceptions of long-term risk: Why global warming does not scare us (yet). Climatic Change, 77, 103–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Werfel, S. H. (2017). Household behaviour crowds out support for climate change policy when sufficient progress is perceived. Nature Climate Change, 7(7), 512–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
West, S. E., Owen, A., Axelsson, K., & West, C. D. (2016). Evaluating the use of a carbon footprint calculator: Communicating impacts of consumption at household level and exploring mitigation options. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 20(3), 396–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willis, L. E. (2008). Against financial-literacy education. Iowa Law Review, 94, 197–285.Google Scholar
Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education & Behavior, 27(5), 591–615.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wojtowicz, Z., Chater, N., & Loewenstein, G. (2022). The motivational processes of sense-making. In Cogliati-Dezza, E. I., Schulz, E., & Wu, C. (Eds.), The drive for knowledge: The science of human information seeking (pp. 3–30). Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodward, A. (2021, August 28). As denying climate change becomes impossible, fossil-fuel interests pivot to “carbon shaming.” Business Insider. Retrieved January 17, 2022, from https://www.businessinsider.com/fossil-fuel-interests-target-climate-advocates-personally-2021-8Google Scholar
Woolhandler, S., & Himmelstein, D. U. (2019). Single-payer reform – “Medicare for all”. JAMA, 321(24), 2399–2400.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zucker, H. A. (2020). Tackling online misinformation: A critical component of effective public health response in the 21st century. American Journal of Public Health, 110(S3), S269.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed