A number of studies have investigated anticipatory behaviour in animals as a measure of sensitivity to reward or as an expression of emotional state. A common feature of many studies is that they base inferences on seemingly arbitrary measures, for example, the frequency of behavioural transitions (ie number of times an animal switches between different behaviours). This paper critically reviews the literature and discusses various hypotheses for why specific behavioural responses occur in the anticipatory period between the signal and reward in conditioned animals. We argue that the specific behaviours shown may be the result of superstitious learning and thus highly variable, leaving behavioural transitions as the only response that can be scored consistently, and that sometimes these responses may relate more to frustration than to a positive emotional state. Finally, we propose new research approaches to avoid potential confounds and improve future studies on this topic.

Globally, over 110 million game birds are reared annually and released for recreational hunting. Game birds differ from other reared livestock because they experience two very distinct environments during their lives. Chicks are first reared in captivity for 6-12 weeks under managed, stable conditions and then released into the wild. A limited set of 13 studies have explored how the rearing conditions experienced by chicks influences their pre-release welfare, typically in terms of physical injury (feather-pecking) or behavioural assays of stress responses. However, no studies have considered the specific indicators of welfare of game birds after release. We therefore need to draw from studies that do not specifically investigate welfare but instead ones that examine how rearing environments influence post-release morphology, behaviour and survival. Consequently, we reviewed how reared and wild-born game birds differ and suggest methods by which more naturalistic rearing conditions may be achieved. We noted five areas where artificial rearing deviates substantially from natural conditions: absence of adults; unnatural chick densities; unnatural diet; unnatural physical environment; and exclusion of predation risk. Mimicking or introducing some of these elements in game bird rearing practice could bring two benefits: i) facilitating more natural behaviour by the chicks during rearing; and ii) ensuring that birds after release are better able to cope with natural hazards. Together, these could result in an improved overall welfare for game birds. For example, enrichment of the spatial environment may serve to both improve welfare pre-release and after release into the wild. However, some adaptations may induce poor welfare for a short period in the young birds. For example, exposure to predators may be temporarily stressful, but ultimately such experiences in early life may permit them to better cope with such threats when released into the wild. Therefore, to achieve an optimal welfare for the entirety of a game bird's life, a careful balance between the conditions experienced in early life and adequate preparation for later life in the wild is required.

Infra-red thermography (IRT) is a non-invasive tool for measuring eye temperature as an indicator of stress and welfare in animals. Previous studies state that images are taken from 90° but do not specify a reference point or method of standardisation. The aims of the current study were to determine whether the position of the IRT camera has an impact on recorded temperature and which camera position is optimal for indicating stress in a mammal with anterolateral eyes. IRT images were taken from 90° to the nasal plane, eye and sagittal plane on the left side of the horses’ faces (n = 14) at eye level before and after exposure to a novel object. Distance and angle of measurement was standardised using ground markers. Temperature at each point of measurement was compared against heart rate variability. A significant difference was found between recorded temperature at all three of the points of measurement, both before and after the novel object test, suggesting that IRT camera position has an impact on eye temperature results. There was a significant strong positive correlation between eye temperature taken from 90° to the sagittal plane and heart rate variability, but no such correlation was observed from 90° to the nasal plane or eye. This suggests that a 90° angle in relation to the sagittal plane is the optimal position for taking eye temperature measurements using IRT, whereas 90° to the eye is commonly used. This study offers a validated protocol for using IRT to measure stress and welfare in mammals with anterolateral eyes.

The aim of this study was to assess the welfare of culled dairy cattle sent to an auction in the UK and identify associations between animal-based measurement and economic gain. The population of cull dairy cows sold at a Scottish livestock market were assessed on ten occasions for measures including body condition, mobility, hair loss and lesions, swelling, body cleanliness, claw conformation and total time in pre-sale pens. Details on breed, age, breeding status, farm, weight and price were gathered from market reports and cattle passports. Questionnaires sent to farms gathered information on reason for culling, retirement period (a finishing period to improve body condition), and number of lactations, among other variables. Measures such as bodyweight, breeding status, and breed type influenced price paid, with heifers and larger animals receiving higher prices. A negative effect over price paid was due to reduced mobility and hair loss scores, suggesting that some animal-based indicators of compromised welfare may be associated with a lower economic return from the cows sent to market. No influence of retirement length on price paid was noted. Reason for culling also did not influence price paid, but considering the association found between welfare and price paid, this suggests that the farmers’ reason for culling may not be necessarily revealed by the visual appearance of the cow. This study reveals reasons for culling and quantifies the welfare of dairy cows at market and demonstrates how measures of breeding status and body size, as well as measures of welfare, influence the buyers’ decisions and prices paid at auction.

Much environmental enrichment for laboratory animals is intended to enhance animal welfare and normalcy by providing stimulation to reduce ‘boredom’. Behavioural manifestations of boredom include restless sensation-seeking behaviours combined with indicators of sub-optimal arousal. Here, we explored whether these signs could be reduced by extra daily play opportunity in laboratory ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). Specifically, we hypothesised that playtime would reduce restlessness, aggression, sensation-seeking and awake drowsiness, even 24 h later in the home-cage. Female ferrets (n = 14) were group-housed in enriched multi-level cages. Playtime involved exploring a room containing a ball pool, paper bags, balls containing bells, and a familiar interactive human for 1 h. This was repeated on three consecutive mornings, and on the fourth, home-cage behaviour was compared between ferrets which had experienced the playtime treatment versus control cage-mates which had not. Their investigation of stimuli (positive = mouse odour or ball; ambiguous = empty bottle or tea-strainer; and negative = peppermint or bitter apple odour) was also recorded. We then swapped treatments, creating a paired experimental design. Ferrets under control conditions lay awake with their eyes open and screeched significantly more, but slept and sat/stood less, than following playtime. They also contacted negative and ambiguous stimuli for significantly longer under control conditions than following playtime; contact with positive stimuli showed no effects. Attempts to blind the observer to treatments were unsuccessful, so replication is required, but the findings suggest that playtime may have reduced both sub-optimal arousal and restless sensation-seeking behaviour, consistent with reducing boredom.

Pig (Sus scrofa) production in Hungary provides a case study in how external pressures influence animal production, animal welfare and intensification. External pressures were explored in 24 in-depth, semi-structured interviews with Hungarian pig farmers operating either confinement or alternative systems. Confinement producers reported intense economic pressure because of a power imbalance with the large meat-processing companies that buy their animals. These companies, in the view of the farmers, can source internationally and largely dictate prices. When prices paid by the companies fall below the cost of production, farmers cannot respond by reducing production because of the long time-lags between breeding and marketing; and with their large investment in confinement buildings that are difficult to modify, farmers see little option except to reduce production costs further. Alternative farmers reported being more resilient to economic pressures because they sell into niche markets, use inexpensive technologies, and typically produce a diversity of agricultural products which buffer periods of low profit in any one commodity. The current regulatory system was seen as inadequate to protect animal welfare from economic pressure because it focuses on certain inputs rather than welfare outcomes, does not cover some important determinants of animal welfare, and does not accommodate certain realities of farming. Current subsidies were also seen as an inadequate remedy, and were viewed as inequitable because they are difficult for alternative producers to access. Consumer-choice options, while used by alternative producers, are not available in mainstream markets which demand uniform ‘commodity’ production. The economic constraints that influence animal welfare might be better mitigated by a regulatory system developed with greater consultation with producers, a more equitable subsidy programme, and more developed consumer-choice programmes.

The welfare of juvenile Finnraccoons (Nyctereutes procyonoides ussuriensis) was compared between various housing conditions through the measurement of day-time behaviour and physiological variables. For the small control treatment (SC), Finnraccoons were raised in pairs in small cages; in the large area treatment (LA), in pairs in large cages; in the large control treatment (LC), in groups of four in large cages and in the large enrichment treatment (LE), in groups of four in large cages with access to a nest-box and a large tube, from weaning to pelting time. Study subjects consisted of a total of 152 Finnraccoons. As autumn progressed, day-time resting increased, especially allohuddling; while active behaviours decreased. Allohuddling was the most common type of resting; apart from in the LE treatment, resting shelters were used effectively alongside allohuddling. Locomotion was observed more frequently in LA and LC treatments, ie in large cages without shelters. The nest-box roof was preferred to the platform as an elevated location, and the nest-box to the tube as a resting shelter. Agonistic interactions were not observed. Males grew heavier than females and had heavier organs. No systematic differences in haematological and other physiological parameters were found between the treatments. Catching time was shortest in the SC treatment. The LE treatment compromised animals’ cleanliness. Based on the intensive positive social interactions and regular shelter use, group housing and access to resting shelters are recommended for juvenile Finnraccoons.

Stereotypies (a subset of Abnormal Repetitive Behaviour [ARB]) are characterised by an unchanging pattern of behaviour and in captive animals can be associated with poor welfare. Although well known in certain taxa, little is known about both welfare and ARBs in reptiles, especially snakes. We document an instance of an ARB in a captive snake species (Hydrodynastes gigas), set it in the context of husbandry in zoos, and assess efforts to reduce it. The stereotypy consisted of a fixed pattern of movement against the enclosure's viewing window. Ethographic data were used to focally sample the animal's behaviour over several months in the context of different enrichment interventions. Modified Spread of Participation Indices (mSPIs) were also calculated to quantify the evenness of enclosure use. The snake spent considerable portions of time (47% of observations) performing a behaviour that fulfils the criteria for stereotypy. mSPI data suggested a possible welfare impact of the behaviour on the snake. Zoos holding this species globally were surveyed about observations of similar behaviour and one other institution reported similar behaviour. Standard husbandry practice (A) was used alternately in an ABAC format with prey scent trails (B) and modified feeding schedules (C), representing enrichment types based on species’ natural history. Neither stereotyping frequency nor mSPI was found to be significantly affected by any of the enrichments. Our results, interpretation of which is limited by the paucity of data on snakes, uncover stereotypies in snakes and suggest that, as with other taxa, ARBs may be resistant to strategies employed to reduce them.

Environmental enrichment is a key component in improving the psychological and physiological well-being of animals under professional care. Environmental enrichment involves the addition of stimuli, including objects and cognitive challenges, into the environment in order to increase species-specific behaviour and provide opportunities for choice and control. The effectiveness of enrichment should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to determine if the desired result has been achieved. Environmental enrichment devices (EEDs) can be utilised to present novel problems to animals under professional care. Here, a submerged interactive cognitive apparatus was presented to eight bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) five days a week for 18 weeks and behavioural indicators of animal welfare assessed. As a group, dolphins spent more time in social swims compared to solitary swims and more time at the bottom of the habitat than the middle or top throughout the day, even when the apparatus was not immediately available. Individuals’ differences were apparent in the type and amount of engagement with the apparatus. Three dolphins engaged with the apparatus by solving it or consuming the reward. Two dolphins, D4 and D8, engaged simultaneously with the apparatus and participated in more social swimming with each other. D4 solved the interactive apparatus and engaged in more social active and solitary active behaviours. D1 and D4 increased their use of the bottom of the habitat. This study is the first report of underwater enrichment increasing dolphins time at depth throughout the day even when the enrichment device is not available. The interactive apparatus was an effective form of enrichment for dolphins participating in successful trials.

In mouse (Mus musculus) models of diabetic nephropathy (DN), one of the most important read-outs is the 24-h urinary albumin excretion (UAE). The 24-h urine collection is usually performed by single housing mice in metabolic cages on wire mesh without enrichment. This is known to be stressful for the mice. Therefore, it was investigated if shorter urine collections would be sufficient to get reliable assessments of albuminuria. Twenty-one diabetic (C57BLKS-Leprdb/ db) and ten non-diabetic mice (C57BLKS-Leprdb/+) were placed in metabolic cages at 15 and 20 weeks of age (WoA) for 24 h. Urine samples were taken at 4, 6, 18 and 24 h and albumin and creatinine concentration were measured. Four- and 6-h UAE was found to correlate significantly with 24-h UAE. Furthermore, a significant correlation was found between 24-h UAE and albumin:creatinine ratio (ACR) in the 4-h sample. However, the strength of the correlation between ACR and 24-h UAE was weaker than between the 4- and 24-h UAE. This suggests that normalising to creatinine may not provide additional value to the 4-h urine collection. In conclusion, the strong correlation between 4- and 6-h UAE and 24-h UAE indicates that the collection period can be considerably reduced. This refinement could reduce stress and increase welfare of the db/db model and potentially be applied to other DN models.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether linear and non-linear measures of heart rate variability (HRV) could be used as indicators of piglet castration pain. Thirty piglets were allocated to 1 of 4 treatments: i) sham castrated HRV (SHRV; n = 8); ii) surgical castrated HRV (CHRV; n = 7); iii) sham castrated blood collection (SBC; n = 7); or iv) surgical castrated blood collection (CBC; n = 8). Piglets in the SHRV and CHRV treatment groups underwent a 1-h HRV and postural behaviour evaluation on day-1, day 0 (castration treatment), day 1 and day 3 of the experimental procedure. Piglets in the SBC and CBC groups underwent blood collection for serum cortisol analysis at -0.5, 1, 2, 3, 24, 48 and 72 h relative to castration treatment. Castrated piglets (CHRV) exhibited greater low to high frequency ratio, lower sample entropy and greater percent determinism compared to SHRV piglets, indicating greater pain-related stress due to the surgical castration procedure. Serum cortisol was greater in CBC pigs at 1 h post-castration compared to SBC piglets. No effect of treatment was found for amount of time spent lying post-castration. In conclusion, surgically castrated pigs exhibited greater pain-related stress than their sham castrated counterparts. Additionally, non-linear HRV measures seem to complement traditional linear HRV measures and may be valuable for assessing pain-related stress in future studies investigating swine welfare.

Community attitudes drive societal expectations, influencing government and industry regulations that determine standards of care for industries reliant on animals. It is important for dog industry stakeholders to understand public perceptions and attitudes, to inform management strategy priorities relating to animal welfare. This study sought to determine if the welfare status of dogs (Canis familiaris) is important to people and whether the perceived level of welfare varies with dog context (eg companion, protection, stock herding, assistance, sporting, free-roaming, wild, etc). Over 2,000 self-selected adults completed a voluntary, internet-based questionnaire. Responses were received from more than twelve countries and from a range of stakeholders with varied experiences. Perceived welfare status of dogs varied significantly across 17 dog contexts and roles, from extremely low (eg fighting dogs) to very high (eg guide dogs). Over 95% of respondents agreed that the welfare of dogs was very important to them. Demographic features of respondents did not relate to meaningful differences in reported importance of canine welfare or ratings of perceived welfare of dogs. The constructs underlying how people perceive the welfare of dogs appear complex and multi-dimensional. As public scrutiny forces reassessment of the welfare status of animals used in various contexts, proactive management of perceived welfare issues by companion and working dog industry stakeholders, including government, industry organisations, advocacy groups, and animal welfare researchers, is likely to be key to the sustainable participation of dogs in these roles.

Medical devices form a large heterogeneous group of products ranging from simple tools to medical testing and implants, the safety and efficacy of which are strictly regulated in all developed countries. Thanks to the health and cost benefits, medical devices have also found their way into veterinary medicine but, surprisingly, the regulation of these products is far less complex or, in some cases, missing altogether. Given the complexity and potential hazards of certain veterinary devices, the current state of affairs may lead to health and safety risks, both for animals and personnel involved. This review is the first to systematically map the current situation in the EU, revealing health and safety risks in practice for both animals and personnel involved and discussing them in a broader context. Only six out of the EU's 28 member states (Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, and Slovakia) were found to have at least a degree of regulation of veterinary devices. As a result, a single product may be regulated as a veterinary medicinal product, a veterinary medical device or not be regulated at all, depending on the particular EU member state in question. As things stand, veterinary medicine makes use of all kinds of medical devices, including human products, regardless of their regulatory status and (pre-market) control. However, the use of such devices may influence the health and well-being of animals. Several measures are therefore suggested to attain the required levels of safety and efficacy surveillance for veterinary medical devices without creating excessive administration.

There are competing conceptions of animal welfare in the scientific literature. Debate among proponents of these various conceptions continues. This paper examines methodologies for use in attempting to justify a conception of animal welfare. It is argued that philosophical methodology relying on conceptual analysis has a central role to play in this debate. To begin, the traditional division between facts and values is refined by distinguishing different types of values, or norms. Once this distinction is made, it is argued that the common recognition that any conception of animal welfare is inherently normative is correct, but that it is not ethical normativity that is at issue. The sort of philosophical methodology appropriate to use in investigating the competing normative conceptions of animal welfare is explained. Finally, the threads of the paper are brought together to consider the appropriate role of recent empirical work into folk conceptions of animal welfare in determining the proper conception of animal welfare. It is argued that empirical results about folk conceptions are useful inputs into conceptual philosophical investigation into the competing conceptions of animal welfare. Further mutual inquiry by philosophers and animal welfare scientists is needed to advance our knowledge of what animal welfare is.

Pregnant (dry) sows (Sus scrofa) are fed a rationed amount of feed to maintain healthy weight and production but this does not satisfy their hunger. This study measured the extent of feed restriction compared to sows’ desired intake. Forty-seven Large White × Landrace sows were housed in small groups with straw bedding and individual feeding stalls. Following three days on a standard ration of 2.5 kg, they were offered 10 kg a day of commercial dry sow feed for three days, split into four 2.5-kg meals a day which enabled individual intakes to be measured. This quantity was effectively ad libitum (maximum daily intake 9.4 kg). Mean (± SEM) intake per day over the three ad libitum days was 5.67 (± 0.24) kg, compared to the 2.5-kg standard ration. The ration thus provides less than half (44.1%) of sows’ desired intake. Behaviour on their third rationed day was compared with behaviour on the third day of ad libitum. Eating rate and the display of hunger-related behaviours, particularly following the morning feed, was greater under ration feeding; sows spent more time in the food stall and less in the straw bed, and more time active rather than resting. During ration-feeding sows also chewed and nosed more at straw bedding and pen equipment and used the drinker more after their morning meal than when they were fed ad libitum. Eating rate on the last rationed day was positively correlated with feed intake on each of the ad libitum days. Despite an EU requirement for fibre to be added to diets to ameliorate this problem, and the provision of straw bedding, hunger resulting from food restriction remains a welfare concern for dry sows.

The current literature on the behaviour, health, and management of companion dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) indicates that their welfare is often compromised. While there are many factors that have the potential to influence the welfare of companion dogs, carer behaviour is highly influential. Therefore, in order to improve the welfare of companion dogs, it is vital to understand the general and specific human factors that underpin carer behaviour. One such factor that has received little attention in the scientific literature is ‘duty of care’. This paper will firstly review several extant, empirically validated models of human behaviour including the Cognitive Hierarchy model, the Schwartz Theory of Basic Human Values, the Theory of Planned Behaviour, and Hemsworth and Coleman's Animal-Carer model. Secondly, by combining aspects of moral obligation and care, a strong theoretical argument will be presented for the role of ‘duty of care’ as a fundamental motivational driver of animal-carer behaviour. Finally, by integrating ‘duty of care’ with the aforementioned existing models, a hypothesised model of Pet Care Competency is presented, providing a more detailed representation of animal carer motivations than previously documented. Drawing together this wide range of behavioural research and psychological theory, the Pet Care Competency model provides a strong conceptual framework for future empirical investigation. Once the relevant values, beliefs, and attitudes that underpin ‘duty of care’ and contribute most strongly to an individual's Pet Care Competency are identified, this model can be utilised to inform behaviour change programmes that aim to improve carer behaviour and, consequently, dog welfare. By employing this model to identify and target the key elements of carer motivation, a more enduring outcome may be achieved than traditional knowledge-based interventions. This work has the potential to significantly improve the outcomes of animal welfare education and intervention programmes, warranting further exploration.

Good colostrum management can confer protective immunity to newborn calves, making calves less susceptible to infectious disease, and fundamentally improving both their short- and long-term health, welfare and productivity. Industry recommendations commonly refer to ‘The Three ‘Q's’ of colostrum management: the need for calves to receive sufficient ‘Quantity’ of high ‘Quality’ colostrum ‘Quickly’ after birth; some also include ‘sQueaky clean’ and ‘Quantification of passive transfer’. However, research to date suggests that the failure of passive transfer of colostral antibodies is common on commercial dairy farms, contributing to sub-optimal calf health and mortality. This paper explores why this may be the case by investigating stakeholder perceptions of colostrum management and how these perceptions might affect the practice of ensuring adequate colostrum administration to newborn calves. Calf rearing and youngstock management practices on English dairy farms were investigated using 40 in-depth semi-structured interviews: 26 with dairy farmers and 14 with advisors (including veterinarians, feed and pharmaceutical company representatives). Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and thematically coded for analysis. ‘The Three ‘Q's’ were found to act as useful reminders about the goals of colostrum management, and a case can be made for further publicising the inclusion of ‘sQueaky clean’ and ‘Quantification of passive transfer’ as there remains a lack of focus on colostrum hygiene and measurement of successful antibody transfer. Knowledge of the ‘Q's’ did not guarantee implementation, and time and labour constraints alongside farmer misconceptions must be addressed when offering professional advice on improving calf health. Further research to encourage on-farm collection and analysis of monitoring data including rates of passive transfer is particularly needed. Advisors must not overlook the importance of colostrum management when assessing farm practices and ensure that they promote evidence-based recommendations if dairy calf morbidity and mortality is to be reduced.

Understanding the factors associated with post-adoptive return in dogs (Canis familiaris) is important for reducing shelter return rates. The objective of this retrospective study was to identify factors detectable in shelters associated with post-adoptive return in an objective dog-centric analysis. The records of 959 dogs were evaluated via factor analysis of seven behaviour and seven physical variables which resulted in the extraction of six principal factors. Fear aggression, ongoing health concerns, separation anxiety, sex-specific aggression, and age effect on source were not found to significantly impact outcome. In particular, dog aggression risk (a factor composed of breed, size, and dog aggression) was found to be significantly higher in returned dogs. Since dog aggression risk is associated with post-adoptive return, this could help shelters to modify policies to either screen aggressive dogs from the adoption population or improve adoption counselling in an attempt to help lower return rates.

Several established models in human and veterinary medicine exist to evaluate an individual health or disease status. Many of these seem unsuitable for further epidemiological research aimed at discovering underlying influential factors. As a case example for score development and choice, the present study analyses different approaches to scoring the foot health of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) living in European facilities. Sum scores with varying degree of detail, and without or with a weighting method, were compared using descriptive statistics, ie kurtosis, skewness, Shannon entropy, total redundancy, their maximum and their actual ranges. With increasing score complexity, a higher level of differentiation was reached. In parallel, the distribution of score frequencies in the population shifted systematically: with the least complex scoring model the pattern indicated a severely unhealthy population with an opposite skew to a hypothetically healthy population, whereas the most complex scoring model indicated a mildly affected population with a skew corresponding to that expected for a healthy population. We propose the latter, in the form of the Particularised Severity Score (ParSev), which accounts for every nail and pad individually and weights the sub-scores by squaring, as the most relevant score for further investigations, either in assessing changes within an elephant population over time, or correlating foot health in epidemiological studies to potentially influencing factors. Our results emphasise the relevance of choosing appropriate scoring models for welfare-associated evaluations, due to implications for the applicability as well as the perceived welfare status of the test population.

Surgical castration is a painful procedure that is routinely performed without pain relief on commercial pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) farms. Previous research has focused on quantifying piglet pain response through behaviours. However, to date, behavioural sampling methodologies used to quantify pain associated with castration have not been validated. Therefore, the objective of this study was to validate scan sampling methodologies (2-min, 3-min, 5-min, 10-min and 15-min intervals) to quantify piglet pain responses expressed by castrated piglets’ behaviour. A total of 39 Yorkshire-Landrace × Duroc male piglets (five days of age) were surgically castrated using a scalpel blade. Behaviour frequency and duration (scratching, spasms, stiffness, tail wagging and trembling) of each piglet were continuously collected for the first 15 min of the following hours relative to castration (-24, 1-8 and 24). To determine if the sampling interval accurately reflected true duration and frequency for each behaviour, as determined by continuous observation, criteria previously utilised from other behavioural validation studies were used: coefficient of determination above 0.9, slope not statistically different from one and intercept not statistically different from zero. No scan sampling interval provided accurate estimates for any behavioural indicators of pain. The results of this study suggest that continuous sampling is the most appropriate methodology to fully capture behaviour specific to pain associated with castration. Using validated behavioural methodologies in future research can assist in the development of objective, science-based protocols for managing pig pain.