Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T17:09:35.025Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The welfare of game birds destined for release into the wild: a balance between early life care and preparation for future natural hazards

Part of: AWF Wild Animal Welfare

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2023

JR Madden ,
F Santilli  and
MA Whiteside
JR Madden
Affiliation:
Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK
F Santilli
Affiliation:
Studio di Gestione Faunistica, Campiglia Marittima, Italy
MA Whiteside*
Affiliation:
Centre for Research in Animal Behaviour, Psychology, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QG, UK
*
* Contact for correspondence: [email protected]
Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Core share and HTML view are not available for this content. However, as you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

Globally, over 110 million game birds are reared annually and released for recreational hunting. Game birds differ from other reared livestock because they experience two very distinct environments during their lives. Chicks are first reared in captivity for 6-12 weeks under managed, stable conditions and then released into the wild. A limited set of 13 studies have explored how the rearing conditions experienced by chicks influences their pre-release welfare, typically in terms of physical injury (feather-pecking) or behavioural assays of stress responses. However, no studies have considered the specific indicators of welfare of game birds after release. We therefore need to draw from studies that do not specifically investigate welfare but instead ones that examine how rearing environments influence post-release morphology, behaviour and survival. Consequently, we reviewed how reared and wild-born game birds differ and suggest methods by which more naturalistic rearing conditions may be achieved. We noted five areas where artificial rearing deviates substantially from natural conditions: absence of adults; unnatural chick densities; unnatural diet; unnatural physical environment; and exclusion of predation risk. Mimicking or introducing some of these elements in game bird rearing practice could bring two benefits: i) facilitating more natural behaviour by the chicks during rearing; and ii) ensuring that birds after release are better able to cope with natural hazards. Together, these could result in an improved overall welfare for game birds. For example, enrichment of the spatial environment may serve to both improve welfare pre-release and after release into the wild. However, some adaptations may induce poor welfare for a short period in the young birds. For example, exposure to predators may be temporarily stressful, but ultimately such experiences in early life may permit them to better cope with such threats when released into the wild. Therefore, to achieve an optimal welfare for the entirety of a game bird's life, a careful balance between the conditions experienced in early life and adequate preparation for later life in the wild is required.

Keywords

animal welfareconservationhuntingpartridgepheasantreintroduction biology
Type
Research Article
Information
Animal Welfare , Volume 29 , Issue 1 , February 2020 , pp. 1 - 18
Copyright
© 2020 Universities Federation for Animal Welfare

References

Aebischer, NJ 2017 Bird bags: summary trends - Common pheasant. Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust. https://www.gwct.org.uk/research/long-term-monitoring/nation-al-gamebag-census/bird-bags-summary-trends/common-pheasant/Google Scholar
Appleby, MC, Hughes, BO and Elson, HA 1992 Poultry Production Systems. Behaviour, Management and Welfare. CABI: Wallingford, UKGoogle Scholar
Bagliacca, M, Calzolari, G, Marzoni, M, Santilli, F, Folliero, M and Mani, P 1998 Fiber content of the growing diet and survival of released pheasants. Atti della Società Italiana di Scienze Veterinarie 52: 511–512Google Scholar
Bagliacca, M, Falcini, F, Porrini, S, Zalli, F and Fronte, B 2010 Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) hens of different origin. Dispersion and habitat use after release. Italian Journal of Animal Science 7:321–334. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2008.321CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagliacca, M, Gervasio, V, Rivatelli, D and Bessei, W 2000 Influence of fatty acids of the yolk on learning performance of day-old chicks. Annali della Facoltà di Medicina Veterinaria di Pisa 53: 43–56Google Scholar
Bagliacca, M, Paci, G, Marzoni, M, Santilli, F and Calzolari, G 1993 High and low fiber diets for growing pheasants. Annali della Facolta di Medicina Veterinaria di Pisa 46: 367–375Google Scholar
Bartashunas, C and Suboski, MD 1984 Effects of age of chick on social transmission of pecking preferences from hen to chicks. Developmental Psychobiology 17: 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.420170203CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beani, L and Dessì-Fulgheri, F 1998 Anti-predator behaviour of captive grey partridges (Perdix perdix). Ethology Ecology & Evolution 10:185–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.1998.9522866CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bessei, W 2006 Welfare of broilers: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 62: 455–466. https://doi.org/10.1079/WPS2005108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binazzi, R, Zaccaroni, M, Nespoli, A, Massolo, A and Dessi-Fulgheri, F 2011 Anti-predator behaviour of the red-legged par-tridge Alectoris rufa (Galliformes: Phasianidae) to simulated terres-trial and aerial predators. Italian Journal of Zoology 78: 106–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/11250003.2010.509136CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brittas, R, Marcström, V, Kenward, RE and Karlbom, M 1992 Survival and breeding success of reared and wild ring-necked pheasants in Sweden. The Journal of Wildlife Management 56: 368–376. https://doi.org/10.2307/3808836CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broom, DM 1986 Indicators of poor welfare. British Veterinary Journal 142: 524–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/0007-1935(86)90109-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buner, F and Schaub, M 2008 How do different releasing techniques affect the survival of reintroduced grey partridges Perdix perdix? Wildlife Biology 14: 26–35. https://doi.org/10.2981/0909-6396(2008)14[26:HDDRTA]2.0.CO;2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burden, D 2013 Game-bird preserve business development guide. Iowa State University, USAGoogle Scholar
Burn, CC 2017 Bestial boredom: a biological perspective on ani-mal boredom and suggestions for its scientific investigation. Animal Behaviour 130: 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbe-hav.2017.06.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Butler, D and Davis, C 2010 Effects of plastic bits on the condition and behaviour of captive-reared pheasants. The Veterinary Record 166: 398–401. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.b4804CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cain, J, Weber, J, Lockamy, T and Creger, C 1984 Grower diets and bird density effects on growth and cannibalism in ring-necked pheasants. Poultry Science 63: 450–457. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0630450CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Calandreau, L, Bertin, A, Boissy, A, Arnould, C, Constantin, P, Desmedt, A, Guémené, D, Nowak, R and Leterrier, C 2011 Effect of one week of stress on emotional reactivity and learning and memory performances in Japanese quail. Behavioural Brain Research 217: 104–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2010.10.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cam, E, Monnat, J-Y and Hines, JE 2003 Long-term fitness con-sequences of early conditions in the kittiwake. Journal of Animal Ecology 72: 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2656.2003.00708.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campo, JL, Dávila, SG and Gil, MG 2014 Comparison of the tonic immobility duration, heterophil to lymphocyte ratio, and fluctuating asymmetry of chicks reared with or without a broody hen, and of broody and non-broody hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 151: 61–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2013.11.007CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clubb, R and Mason, G 2003 Animal welfare: captivity effects on wide-ranging carnivores. Nature 425: 473–474. https://doi.org/10.1038/425473aCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Coles, C 1975 The Complete Book of Game Conservation. Barrie and Jenkins Ltd: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Collias, N and Joos, M 1953 The spectrographic analysis of sound signals of the domestic fowl. Behaviour 5: 175–188. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853953X00104Google Scholar
Cooper, JJ, Ödberg, F and Nicol, CJ 1996 Limitations on the effectiveness of environmental improvement in reducing stereo-typic behaviour in bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 48: 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(95)01020-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cordiner, LS and Savory, CJ 2001 Use of perches and nestbox-es by laying hens in relation to social status, based on examination of consistency of ranking orders and frequency of interaction. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 71: 305–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00186-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Daan, S and Aschoff, J 1982 Vertebrate Circadian Systems pp 305–321. Springer: UJ, USA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-68651-1_34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dalke, PL 1937 Food habits of adult pheasants in Michigan based on crop analysis method. Ecology 18: 199–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Azevedo, CS and Young, RJ 2006 Behavioural responses of captive-born greater rheas Rhea americana Linnaeus (Rheiformes, Rheidae) submitted to antipredator training. Revista Brasileira de Zoologia 23: 186–193. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0101-81752006000100010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deeming, D, Hodges, H and Cooper, J 2011 Effect of sight bar-riers in pens of breeding ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchi-cus): I. Behaviour and welfare. British Poultry Science 52: 403–414. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071668.2011.590796CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Defra 2018 United Kingdom Poultry and Poultry Meat Statistics - July 2018. National Statistics: York, UKGoogle Scholar
de Jong, IC, Fillerup, M and Blokhuis, HJ 2005 Effect of scattered feeding and feeding twice a day during rearing on indicators of hunger and frustration in broiler breeders. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 92: 61–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2004.10.022CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donaldson, C, Ball, M and O’Connell, N 2012 Aerial perches and free-range laying hens: The effect of access to aerial perches and of individual bird parameters on keel bone injuries in com-mercial free-range laying hens. Poultry Science 91: 304–315. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2011-01774CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Đorđević, M, Pekeč, S, Popović, Z and Đorđević, N 2010 Influence of dietary protein levels on production results and mor-tality in pheasants reared under controlled conditions. Acta Veterinaria 60: 79–88. https://doi.org/10.2298/AVB1001079DGoogle Scholar
Dowell, S 1990 Differential behaviour and survival of hand-reared and wild grey partridge in the United Kingdom. In: Church, KE, Warner, RE and Brady, SJ (eds) Perdix V: Gray Partridge and Ringnecked Pheasant Workshop pp 230–241. Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks: USAGoogle Scholar
Draycott, R 2002a Spring feeding pheasants on farmland. Aspects of Applied Biology 67: 197–202Google Scholar
Draycott, RA 2002b Effects of supplementary feeding on the body condition and breeding success of released pheasants. PhD Thesis, Department of Biology, Acta Universitatis Ouluensis, Oulu, FinlandGoogle Scholar
Draycott, RA, Hoodless, AN, Ludiman, MN and Robertson, PA 1998 Effects of spring feeding on body condition of captive-reared ring-necked pheasants in Great Britain. The Journal of Wildlife Management 11: 557–563. https://doi.org/10.2307/3802329CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Draycott, RAH, Woodburn, MIA, Carroll, JP and Sage, RB 2005 Effects of spring supplementary feeding on population density and breeding success of released pheasants Phasianus colchicus in Britain. Wildlife Biology 11: 177–182. https://doi.org/10.2981/0909-6396(2005)11[177:EOSSFO]2.0.CO;2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, IJH and Wood-Gush, DGM 1972 Thwarting of feeding behaviour in the domestic fowl. Animal Behaviour 20: 444–451. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(72)80007-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Edgar, J, Held, S, Jones, C and Troisi, C 2016 Influences of maternal care on chicken welfare. Animals 6: 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani6010002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ellis, DH, Gee, GF, Hereford, SG, Olsen, GH, Chisolm, TD, Nicolich, JM, Sullivan, KA, Thomas, NJ, Nagendran, M and Hatfield, JS 2000 Post-release survival of hand-reared and par-ent-reared Mississippi sandhill cranes. The Condor 102: 104–112. https://doi.org/10.2307/1370411CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Evans, RM 1975 Stimulus intensity and acoustical communication in young domestic chicks. Behaviour 55: 73–80. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853975X00416CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fält, B 1981 Development of responsiveness to the individual maternal ‘clucking’ by domestic chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus). Behavioural Processes 6: 303–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(81)90048-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farm Animal Welfare Council 1993 Second report on priorities for research and development in farm animal welfare. FAWC: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Farm Animal Welfare Council 2009 Farm animal welfare in Great Britain: Past, present and future. FAWC: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Ferretti, M, Falcini, F, Paci, G and Bagliacca, M 2012 Captive rearing technologies and survival of pheasants (Phasianus colchicus L) after release. Italian Journal of Animal Science 11: e29. https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2012.e29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer, J and Lindenmayer, DB 2000 An assessment of the published results of animal relocations. Biological Conservation 96:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(00)00048-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fleming, R, Whitehead, C, Alvey, D, Gregory, N and Wilkins, L 1994 Bone structure and breaking strength in laying hens housed in different husbandry systems. British Poultry Science 35: 651–662. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071669408417731CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fraser, AF and Broom, DM 1997 Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. CABI: Wallingford, UKGoogle Scholar
Game Conservancy Limited Advisory Group 1990 Gamebird Rearing. Game Conservancy Ltd: Fordingbridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Gaudioso, VR, Sánchez-García, C, Pérez, JA, Rodríguez, PL, Armenteros, JA and Alonso, ME 2011 Does early antipredator training increase the suitability of captive red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) for releasing? Poultry Science 90: 1900–1908. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.2011-01430CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gilani, A-M, Knowles, TG and Nicol, CJ 2012 The effect of dark brooders on feather pecking on commercial farms. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 142: 42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2012.09.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilani, A-M, Knowles, TG and Nicol, CJ 2013 The effect of rearing environment on feather pecking in young and adult laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 148: 54–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2013.07.014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Göth, A 2001 Innate predator-recognition in Australian brush-turkey (Alectura lathami, Megapodiidae) hatchlings. Behaviour 138:117–136. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853901750077826CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grandin, T 2015 Improving Animal Welfare: A Practical Approach. CABI: Wallingford, UK. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781780644677.0000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Great Britain Poultry Register 2013 Great Britain Poultry Register Statistics 2013. Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories, Veterinary Surveillance Strategy, UKGoogle Scholar
Green, RE 1984 The feeding ecology and survival of partridge chicks (Alectoris rufa and Perdix perdix) on arable farmland in East Anglia. Journal of Applied Ecology 21: 817–830. https://doi.org/10.2307/2405049CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gregory, N and Wilkins, L 1992 Skeletal damage and bone defects during catching and processing. In: Whitehead, C (ed) Bone Biology and Skeletal Disorders in Poultry pp 313–328. Carfax Publishing: Abingdon, UKGoogle Scholar
Gunnarsson, S, Yngvesson, J, Keeling, LJ and Forkman, B 2000 Rearing without early access to perches impairs the spatial skills of laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 67: 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00125-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gvaryahu, G, Ararat, E, Asaf, E, Lev, M, Weller, J, Robinzon, B and Snapir, N 1994 An enrichment object that reduces aggressiveness and mortality in caged laying hens. Physiology & Behavior 55: 313–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(94)90139-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
GWCT 1991 Gamebird releasing. Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust: Fordingbridge, UKGoogle Scholar
GWCT 1994 Gamebird Rearing. Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust: Fordingbridge, UKGoogle Scholar
GWCT 2017 Advisory and Education: Winter feeding. Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust: Fordingbridge, UK. https://www.gwct.org.uk/advisory/faqs/winter-feedingGoogle Scholar
Haensly, TF, Crawford, JA and Meyers, SM 1987 Relationships of habitat structure to nest success of ring-necked pheasants. The Journal of Wildlife Management 51: 421–425. https://doi.org/10.2307/3801029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrington, LA, Moehrenschlager, A, Gelling, M, Atkinson, RP, Hughes, J and Macdonald, DW 2013 Conflicting and com-plementary ethics of animal welfare considerations in reintroductions. Conservation Biology 27: 486–500. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12021CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heerkens, JLT, Delezie, E, Ampe, B, Rodenburg, TB and Tuyttens, FAM 2016 Ramps and hybrid effects on keel bone and foot pad disorders in modified aviaries for laying hens. Poultry Science 95: 2479–2488. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pew157CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hessler, E, Tester, JR, Siniff, DB and Nelson, MM 1970 A biotelemetery study of survival of pen-reared pheasants released in selected habitats. The Journal of Wildlife Management 34: 267–274. https://doi.org/10.2307/3799010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, D and Robertson, P 1988a Breeding success of wild and hand-reared ring-necked pheasants. The Journal of Wildlife Management 52: 446–450. https://doi.org/10.2307/3801588CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, DA and Robertson, PA 1988b The Pheasant: Ecology, Management and Conservation. Blackwell Scientific Books: Oxford, UKGoogle Scholar
Hoffmeyer, I 1969 Feather pecking in pheasants: an ethological approach to the problem. Danish Review of Game Biology 6: 2–36Google Scholar
Homberger, B, Jenni, L, Duplain, J, Lanz, M and Schaub, M 2014 Food unpredictability in early life increases survival of captive grey partridges (Perdix perdix) after release into the wild. Biological Conservation 177: 134–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bio-con.2014.06.023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Homberger, B, Jenni-Eiermann, S, Roulin, A and Jenni, L 2013 The impact of pre- and post-natal contexts on immunity, glucocorticoids and oxidative stress resistance in wild and domes-ticated grey partridges. Functional Ecology 27: 1042–1054. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.12092CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoodless, AN, Draycott, RAH, Ludiman, MN and Robertson, PA 1999 Effects of supplementary feeding on terri-toriality, breeding success and survival of pheasants. Journal of Applied Ecology 36: 147–156. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.1999.00388.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horgan, R and Gavinelli, A 2006 The expanding role of animal welfare within EU legislation and beyond. Livestock Science 103:303–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2006.05.019CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huber-Eicher, B and Wechsler, B 1997 Feather pecking in domestic chicks: its relation to dustbathing and foraging. Animal Behaviour 54: 757–768. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0506CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huber-Eicher, BEAT and Wechsler, B 1998 The effect of quality and availability of foraging materials on feather pecking in laying hen chicks. Animal Behaviour 55: 861–873. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1997.0715CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, B and Appleby, M 1989 Increase in bone strength of spent laying hens housed in modified cages with perches. The Veterinary Record 124: 483–484. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.124.18.483CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, B, Wilson, S, Appleby, M and Smith, S 1993 Comparison of bone volume and strength as measures of skeletal integrity in caged laying hens with access to perches. Research in Veterinary Science 54: 202–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-5288(93)90057-MCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hughes, BO, Carmichael, NL, Walker, AW and Grigor, PN 1997 Low incidence of aggression in large flocks of laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 54: 215–234. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(96)01177-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huntingford, FA 2004 Implications of domestication and rearing conditions for the behaviour of cultivated fishes. Journal of Fish Biology 65: 122–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-1112.2004.00562.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, AB, Palme, R and Forkman, B 2006 Effect of brooders on feather pecking and cannibalism in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus domesticus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 99: 287–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2005.10.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnsgard, P 1999 The Pheasant of the World: Biology and Natural History. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, DC, USAGoogle Scholar
Johnson, S, Patterson-Kane, E and Niel, L 2004 Foraging enrichment for laboratory rats. Animal Welfare 13: 305–312Google Scholar
Jones, R 2001 Does occasional movement make pecking devices more attractive to domestic chicks? British Poultry Science 42: 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071660020035064CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, RB 1986 The tonic immobility reaction of the domestic fowl: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal 42: 82–96. https://doi.org/10.1079/WPS19860008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, RB 1987 Food neophobia and olfaction in domestic chicks. Bird Behavior 7: 78–81. https://doi.org/10.3727/015613887791918051CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, RB 1996 Fear and adaptability in poultry: insights, implications and imperatives. World's Poultry Science Journal 52: 131–174. https://doi.org/10.1079/WPS19960013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelley, JL, Magurran, AE, and Maćias-Garcia, C 2005 The influence of rearing experience on the behaviour of an endan-gered Mexican fish, Skiffia multipunctata. Biological Conservation 122: 223–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2004.07.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kirkwood, J, Sainsbury, A and Bennett, P 1994 The welfare of free-living wild animals: methods of assessment. Animal Welfare 3: 257–273Google Scholar
Kirkwood, JK and Sainsbury, AW 1996 Ethics of interventions for the welfare of free-living wild animals. Animal Welfare 5: 235–244Google Scholar
Kjær, J 2004 Effects of stocking density and group size on the con-dition of the skin and feathers of pheasant chicks. The Veterinary Record 154: 556–558. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.154.18.556CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kjær, JB 1997 Effect of light intensity on growth, feed intake and feather pecking behaviour in beak trimmed and bitted pheasant chickens (Phasianus colchicus). Archiv fuer Gefluegelkunde 61: 167–171Google Scholar
Kreger, MD, Hatfield, JS, Estevez, I, Gee, GF and Clugston, DA 2005 The effects of captive rearing on the behavior of newly-released whooping cranes (Grus americana). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93: 165–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applan-im.2004.12.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lambton, SL, Knowles, TG, Yorke, C and Nicol, CJ 2010 The risk factors affecting the development of gentle and severe feath-er pecking in loose housed laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 123: 32–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2009.12.010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Le Neindre, P 1993 Evaluating housing systems for veal calves. Journal of Animal Science 71: 1345–1354. https://doi.org/10.2527/1993.7151345xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lindström, J 1999 Early development and fitness in birds and mammals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 14: 343–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01639-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liukkonen-Anttila, T, Putaala, A and Hissa, R 2002 Feeding of hand-reared grey partridge Perdix perdix chicks-importance of invertebrates. Wildlife Biology 8: 11–19. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.2002.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumineau, S and Guyomarc’h, C 2000 Circadian rhythm of activity during the annual phases in the European quail, Coturnix coturnix. Comptes Rendus de l’Académie des Sciences-Series III-Sciences de la Vie 323: 793–799. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0764-4469(00)01226-9Google ScholarPubMed
Madden, JR, Hall, A and Whiteside, MA 2018 Why do many pheasants released in the UK die, and how can we best reduce their natural mortality? European Journal of Wildlife Research 64: 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-018-1199-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madsen, H 1966 On feather picking and cannibalism in pheasant and partridge chicks, particularly in relation to the amino acid arginine. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 7: 272–287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Manteca, X, Villalba, JJ, Atwood, SB, Dziba, L and Provenza, FD 2008 Is dietary choice important to animal welfare? Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research 3: 229–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2008.05.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, AP and Black, JM 1992 The effect of rearing experi-ence on subsequent behavioural traits in Hawaiian geese (Branta sandvicensis): implications for the recovery programme. Bird Conservation International 2: 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270900002367CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matheson, SM, Donbavand, J, Sandilands, V, Pennycott, T and Turner, SP 2015 An ethological approach to determining housing requirements of gamebirds in raised laying units. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 165: 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.02.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Maxwell, JM and Jamieson, IG 1997 Survival and recruitment of captive-reared and wild-reared takahe in Fiordland, New Zealand. Conservation Biology 11: 683–691. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95432.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
McEwen, BS 1999 Stress and hippocampal plasticity. Annual Review of Neuroscience 22: 105–122. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGowan, PJK, Kirwan, GM and Boesman, P 2013 Red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa), In: del Hoya, J, Elliot, J, Sargatal, DA and De Juana, E (eds) Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Lynx Editions: Barcelona, SpainGoogle Scholar
McLean, IG, Hölzer, C and Studholme, BJS 1999 Teaching predator-recognition to a naive bird: implications for manage-ment. Biological Conservation 87: 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00024-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meagher, RK and Mason, GJ 2012 Environmental enrichment reduces signs of boredom in caged mink. PLoS One 7: e49180. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0049180CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendl, M 1999 Performing under pressure: stress and cognitive function. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65: 221–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00088-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millán, J, Gortázar, CJ, Buenestado, F, Rodríguez, PS, Tortosa, F and Villafuerte, R 2003 Effects of a fiber-rich diet on physiology and survival of farm-reared red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology-Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology 134: 85–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1095-6433(02)00189-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morgan, KN and Tromborg, CT 2007 Sources of stress in cap-tivity. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 102: 262–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.032CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Napolitano, F, Braghieri, A, Cifuni, GF, Pacelli, C and Girolami, A 2002a Behaviour and meat production of organical-ly farmed unweaned lambs. Small Ruminant Research 43: 179–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-4488(02)00015-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Napolitano, F, Cifuni, GF, Pacelli, C, Riviezzi, AM and Girolami, A 2002b Effect of artificial rearing on lamb welfare and meat quality. Meat Science 60: 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0309-1740(01)00140-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newberry, RC, Estevez, I and Keeling, LJ 2001 Group size and perching behaviour in young domestic fowl. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 73: 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(01)00135-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicol, C 2004 Development, direction, and damage limitation: Social learning in domestic fowl. Animal Learning & Behavior 32: 72–81. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nicol, C, Gregory, N, Knowles, T, Parkman, I and Wilkins, L 1999 Differential effects of increased stocking density, mediated by increased flock size, on feather pecking and aggression in laying hens. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65: 137–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00057-XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nicol, CJ and Pope, SJ 1996 The maternal feeding display of domestic hens is sensitive to perceived chick error. Animal Behaviour 52: 767–774. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1996.0221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowaczewski, S, Gosk, J, Kolanoś, B, Wolc, A and Kontecka, H 2012 Characteristics of the tonic immobility reaction in young farm-reared ring-neck pheasants, common quails and grey par-tridges. Journal of Ethology 30: 289–294. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10164-012-0325-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nowaczewski, S, Kontecka, H and Pruszynska-Oszmałek, E 2006 Effect of feed supplementation with vitamin C on haematolog-ical indices, corticosterone concentration in blood and duration of tonic immobility in pheasants. Annals of Animal Science 6: 117–128Google Scholar
Olla, BL, Davis, MW and Ryer, CH 1998 Understanding how the hatchery environment represses or promotes the development of behavioral survival skills. Bulletin of Marine Science 62: 531–550Google Scholar
Olsson, IAS and Keeling, LJ 2000 Night-time roosting in laying hens and the effect of thwarting access to perches. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 68: 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(00)00097-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsson, IAS and Keeling, LJ 2005 Why in earth? Dustbathing behaviour in jungle and domestic fowl reviewed from a Tinbergian and animal welfare perspective. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 93: 259–282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2004.11.018CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ONCFS 2013 Le faisan commun. ONCFS: Paris, France. [Title translation: The common pheasant]Google Scholar
Orledge, JM, Blount, JD, Hoodless, AN, Pike, TW and Royle, NJ 2012a Synergistic effects of supplementation of dietary antiox-idants during growth on adult phenotype in ring-necked pheas-ants, Phasianus colchicus. Functional Ecology 26: 254–264. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2011.01932.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Orledge, JM, Blount, JD, Hoodless, AN and Royle, NJ 2012b Antioxidant supplementation during early development reduces parasite load but does not affect sexual ornament expression in adult ring?necked pheasants. Functional Ecology 26: 688–700. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.01977.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Özbey, O and Esen, F 2007 The effects of breeding systems and stocking density on some blood parameters of rock partridges (Alectoris graeca). Poultry Science 86: 420–422. Öhttps://doi.org/10.1093/ps/86.2.420CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
PACEC 2008 The economic and environmental impact of shooting. Public and Corporate Economic Consultants (PACEC): Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Paganin, M, Dondini, G, Vergari, S and Dessi-Fulgheri, F 1993 La dieta e l’esperienza influenzano la sopravvivenza di coturnici (Alectoris graeca) liberate in natura. Supplemeto alle Ricerche di Biologia della Selvaggina 21: 669–676. [Title translation: Diet and experience affect the survival of quail (Alectoris graeca) released in nature]Google Scholar
Pattison, M, McMullin, PF, Bradbury, JM and Alexander, DJ 2008 Poultry Diseases. Elsevier Health Sciences: Philadelphia, USAGoogle Scholar
Pennycott, T, Deeming, C and McMillan, M 2012 Game bird breeding, brooding and rearing: health and welfare. In: Sandilands, V and Hocking, P (eds) Alternative Systems for Poultry: Health, Welfare and Productivity pp 155–168. University of Glasgow: Glasgow, UK. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845938246.0155CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pérez, J, Sánchez-García, C, Díez, C, Bartolomé, D, Alonso, M and Gaudioso, V 2015 Are parent-reared red-legged par-tridges (Alectoris rufa) better candidates for re-establishment pur-poses? Poultry Science 94: 2330–2338. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps/pev210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Potts, G 2012 Partridges. Collins: London, UKGoogle Scholar
Putaala, A and Hissa, R 1995 Effects of hand-rearing on physiol-ogy and anatomy in the grey partridge. Wildlife Biology 1: 27–31. https://doi.org/10.2981/wlb.1995.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabin, LA 2003 Maintaining behavioural diversity in captivity for con-servation: natural behaviour management. Animal Welfare 12: 85–94Google Scholar
Rands, M 1988 The effect of nest site selection on nest predation in grey partridge Perdix perdix and red-legged partridge Alectoris rufa. Ornis Scandinavica 19: 35–40. https://doi.org/10.2307/3676525CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rantanen, EM, Buner, F, Riordan, P, Sotherton, N and Macdonald, DW 2010 Vigilance, time budgets and predation risk in reintroduced captive-bred grey partridges Perdix perdix. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 127: 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.08.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reichmann, K and Connor, J 1977 Influence of dietary calcium and phosphorus on metabolism and production in laying hens. British Poultry Science 18: 633–640. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071667708416414CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Riber, AB, Nielsen, BL, Ritz, C and Forkman, B 2007 Diurnal activity cycles and synchrony in layer hen chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus). Applied Animal Behaviour Science 108: 276–287. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2007.01.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roberts, L, Taylor, J and Garcia de Leaniz, C 2011 Environmental enrichment reduces maladaptive risk-taking behav-ior in salmon reared for conservation. Biological Conservation 144:1972–1979. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.017CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, P 1997 A Natural History of the Pheasant. Swan Hill Press: Shrewsbury, UKGoogle Scholar
Rushen, J 2003 Changing concepts of farm animal welfare: bridging the gap between applied and basic research. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 81: 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00281-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sage, R and Robertson, P 2000 Pheasant productivity in relation to population density, predation and rearing: a meta-analysis. Hungarian Small Game Bulletin 5: 15–28Google Scholar
Salvatierra, NA, Cid, MP and Arce, A 2009 Neonatal acute stress by novelty in the absence of social isolation decreases fear-fulness in young chicks. Stress 12: 328–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/10253890802455433CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Santilli, F and Bagliacca, M 2017 Effect of perches on morphol-ogy, welfare and behaviour of captive reared pheasants. Italian Journal of Animal Science 16: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2016.1270781CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santilli, F and Bagliacca, M 2019 Fear and behavior of young pheasants reared with or without parent figure. Avian Biology Research 12: 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1758155919826765CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santilli, F, Galardi, L and Bagliacca, M 2012 First evaluation of different captive rearing techniques for the re-establishment of the red legged partridge populations. Avian Biology Research 5: 147–153. https://doi.org/10.3184/175815512X13441821968945CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scott, M, Holm, ER and Reynolds, R 1955 Effect of diet on the ability of young pheasant chicks to withstand the stress of cold, drenching rain. Poultry Science 34: 949–956. https://doi.org/10.3382/ps.0340949CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seddon, P, Armstrong, D and Maloney, R 2007 Developing the science of reintroduction biology. Conservation Biology 21: 303–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00627.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shepherdson, D 1994 The role of environmental enrichment in the captive breeding and reintroduction of endangered species. In: Olney, PJS, Mace, GM and Feistner, ATC (eds) Creative Conservation pp 167–177. Springer: The Netherlands. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0721-1_8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sherry, D 1977 Parental food-calling and the role of the young in the Burmese red junglefowl (Gallus gallus spadiceus). Animal Behaviour 25: 594–601. https://doi.org/10.1016/0003-3472(77)90109-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shimmura, T, Kamimura, E, Azuma, T, Kansaku, N, Uetake, K and Tanaka, T 2010 Effect of broody hens on behaviour of chicks. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 126: 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2010.06.011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shipov, A, Sharir, A, Zelzer, E, Milgram, J, Monsonego-Ornan, E and Shahar, R 2010 The influence of severe prolonged exercise restriction on the mechanical and structural properties of bone in an avian model. Veterinary Journal 2: 183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2008.11.015Google Scholar
Slaugh, B, Johnston, N, Flinders, J and Bramwell, R 1990 Effect of light regime on welfare and growth of pheasants. Animal Technology: Journal of the Institute of Animal Technology 41: 103–114Google Scholar
Slaugh, BT, Flinders, JT, Roberson, JA and Johnston, NP 1992 Effect of rearing methds on chuckar survival. The Great Basin Naturalist 52: 25–28Google Scholar
Stadig, L, Rodenburg, T, Reubens, B, Ampe, B and Tuyttens, F 2018 Effects of dark brooders and overhangs on free-range use and behaviour of slow-growing broilers. Animal 12: 1621–1630. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731117003184CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stahl, D and Kaumanns, W 2003 Food competition in captive female sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus torquatus atys). Primates 44:203–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-002-0012-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Starling, AE 1991 Workshop summary: Captive breeding and release. Ornis Scandinavica 22: 255–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/3676599CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stokes, AW 1971 Parental and courtship feeding in red jungle fowl. The Auk 88: 21–29. https://doi.org/10.2307/4083958CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Suboski, MD and Bartashunas, C 1984 Mechanisms for social transmission of pecking preferences to neonatal chicks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes 10: 182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0097-7403.10.2.182Google Scholar
Suchecki, D, Palma, BD and Tufik, S 2000 Pituitary-adrenal axis and behavioural responses of maternally deprived juvenile rats to the open field. Behavioural Brain Research 111: 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4328(00)00148-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teixeira, CP, de Azevedo, CS, Mendl, M, Cipreste, CF and Young, RJ 2007 Revisiting translocation and reintroduction pro-grammes: the importance of considering stress. Animal Behaviour 73: 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.06.002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thaler, E 1987 Studies on the behaviour of some Phasianidae-chicks at the Alpenzoo-Innsbruck. Journal of the Science Faculty of Chiang Mai University 14: 135–149Google Scholar
Thomas, VG 1987 Nutritional, morphological, and behavioural considerations for rearing birds for release. Journal für Ornithologie 128: 423–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01644658CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Valutis, LL and Marzluff, JM 1999 The appropriateness of pup-pet-rearing birds for reintroduction. Conservation Biology 13: 584–591. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.97443.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Heezik, Y, Seddon, PJ and Maloney, RF 1999 Helping reintroduced houbara bustards avoid predation: effective anti-predator training and the predictive value of pre-release behav-iour. Animal Conservation 2: 155–163. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943099000487CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Veissier, I, Butterworth, A, Bock, B and Roe, E 2008 European approaches to ensure good animal welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 113: 279–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2008.01.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ventura, BA, Siewerdt, F and Estevez, I 2012 Access to bar-rier perches improves behavior repertoire in broilers. PLoS One 7: e29826. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029826CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vestergaard, KS and Bildsoe, M 1999 Dustbathing in relation to early pecking experience in game pheasants (Phasianus colchi-cus). Acta Veterinaria Brno 68: 141–148. https://doi.org/10.2754/avb199968020141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vickery, SS and Mason, GJ 2003 Behavioral persistence in captive bears: Implications for reintroduction. Ursus 14: 35–43Google Scholar
Warner, RE 1979 Use of cover by pheasant broods in east-cen-tral Illinois. The Journal of Wildlife Management 2: 334–346. https://doi.org/10.2307/3800342CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, M, Aebischer, NJ and Cresswell, W 2007 Vigilance and fitness in grey partridges Perdix perdix: the effects of group size and foraging-vigilance trade-offs on predation mortality. Journal of Animal Ecology 76: 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2006.01194.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wauters, AM, Richard-Yris, MA and Talec, N 2002 Maternal influences on feeding and general activity in domestic chicks. Ethology 108: 529–540. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1439-0310.2002.00793.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, ED and Fausch, KD 2003 Interactions between hatch-ery and wild salmonids in streams: differences in biology and evi-dence for competition. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 60: 1018–1036. https://doi.org/10.1139/f03-087CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteside, MA, Sage, R and Madden, JR 2015 Diet complexity in early life affects survival in released pheasants by altering foraging effi-ciency, food choice, handling skills and gut morphology. Journal of Animal Ecology 84: 1480–1489. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2656.12401CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Whiteside, MA, Sage, R and Madden, JR 2016 Multiple behav-ioural, morphological and cognitive developmental changes arise from a single alteration to early life spatial environment, resulting in fitness consequences for released pheasants. Royal Society Open Science 3: 3. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wichman, A, Heikkilä, M, Valros, A, Forkman, B and Keeling, LJ 2007 Perching behaviour in chickens and its relation to spatial ability. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 105: 165–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilkins, L, Brown, S, Zimmerman, P, Leeb, C and Nicol, C 2004 Investigation of palpation as a method for determining the prevalence of keel and furculum damage in laying hens. The Veterinary Record 155: 547. https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.155.18.547CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wise, D 1993 Pheasant Health and Welfare. Piggott Printers: Cambridge, UKGoogle Scholar
Zaccaroni, M, Ciuffreda, M, Paganin, M and Beani, L 2007 Does an early aversive experience to humans modify antipredator behaviour in adult rock partridges? Ethology Ecology & Evolution 19: 193–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2007.9522561CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zimmerman, PH, Lindberg, AC, Pope, SJ, Glen, E, Bolhuis, JE and Nicol, CJ 2006 The effect of stocking den-sity, flock size and modified management on laying hen behaviour and welfare in a non-cage system. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 101: 111–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.01.005CrossRefGoogle Scholar