Twin infant black and white ruffed lemurs, male and female, were fostered on a part-time basis, in conjunction with hand-rearing, with an adult pair who were highly related to them. The adult female showed allomaternal behaviour towards the twins, although she did not attempt to suckle them. The adult male ignored the twins for the first few weeks but as they became more mobile and playful he frequently initiated play with one or both. Growth rates showed a significant trend when compared with parentally raised and hand-reared infants, with the fostered twins growing at rates intermediate between those found under the two other rearing methods. Fostering of rejected infants as a captive management strategy is advocated as an alternative to traditional hand-rearing techniques because of the welfare advantages to both infants and foster parents.

Whale watching is defined as tours by air, sea or land to view any of the 86 reported species of whales, dolphins and porpoises in their natural habitat where a commercial aspect exists (IFAW 1999). Whale-watching platforms include small boats, sailboats, cruise ships, inflatables, kayaks, helicopters and airplanes, and the activity can also include observation from land-based sites and approaches made by swimmers. In addition to being non-disruptive to the cetacean population, ‘responsible whale watching’ has many potential educational, environmental, scientific and socioeconomic benefits for human communities (Hoyt & Iñíguez 2008). As a result, tourism of this kind can have a positive effect on nature through the promotion of a general interest and awareness in cetaceans, sustainable economic growth for local economies (which are often otherwise struggling), therefore providing multiple benefits, including improved motivation to preserve marine wildlife.

Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) are an economically and ecologically important fish species that interact with humans during farming, fishing and research operations. Routine handling in nets exposes fish to mesh and causes scale loss. To promote welfare and experimental refinement, a study was performed in a controlled environment to investigate the effect of net mesh type (rubber-coated or standard knotless, both bag volumes circa 7 l; mesh size: 6 mm) and the number of fish per net (capture density) on scale loss. Up to three large adult salmon (mean weight: 900 g) or 15 small smolts (mean weight: 145 g) were briefly captured in hand-nets during routine immersed-stock movement between tanks. Scales were recovered and counted from transportation containers, to establish a simple and rapid methodology. For both size grades, scale loss was generally proportional to capture density. For large adult salmon, scale loss significantly increased with capture density when knotless mesh was used, however the increase was less marked and not statistically significant for adults handled in rubber mesh. Small smolts also demonstrated significantly reduced scale loss when handled with rubber mesh, which increased gradually with capture density. In contrast, small smolts handled in knotless mesh showed greater scale loss as capture density increased. An overall reduction in scale loss with increased capture density was not shown, although the biomass loading per net used in this study were intentionally low (< 3.5 kg). This method suggests a low-tech and rapid approach to quantitatively compare net types and husbandry techniques and suggests a fundamental but simple improvement to salmonid handling in recreational and commercial operations. However, any correlation to conventional stress assays or behavioural observations remains to be established.

Lion (Panthera leo) cubs are used in wildlife interaction tourism but the effects on cub welfare are unknown. We assessed the behaviour of three cohorts of lion cubs, twelve animals in total, at three different interaction facilities, using continuous and scan-sampling methodologies for the entire duration of cub utilisation for human interactions. Cubs spent most time inactive (62%), particularly sleeping (38%), but also spent a substantial amount of time playing (13%) and being alert (12%). A generalised linear mixed model revealed that cub behaviour was similar in two facilities but different from cubs in the third. In these two similar facilities, as human interactions increased, the time spent resting, sleeping and playing with other cubs decreased, and alert behaviour, grooming of humans and flight responses increased. In the third facility, cubs had an abnormal activity budget, with high levels of inactivity (80%) accompanied by a lack of response to human interactions. We conclude that in some facilities normal cub behaviour cannot be achieved and may be compromised by a high frequency of human interactions, which therefore needs to be controlled to limit adverse effects on cub behaviour.

The attempt to provide a firm scientific basis for understanding consciousness is now in full swing, with special contributions from two areas. One is experimental: brain imaging is providing ever increasing detail of the brain structures used by humans (and other animals) as they solve a variety of tasks, including those of higher cognition. The other is theoretical: the discipline of neural networks is allowing models of these cognitive processes to be constructed and tested against the available data. In particular, a control framework can be created to give a global view of the brain. The highest cognitive process, that of consciousness, is naturally a target for such experimentation and modelling. This paper reviews available data and related models leading to the central representation, which involves particular brain regions and functional processing. Principles of consciousness, which have great relevance to the question in the title, are thereby deduced. The requisite neuronal systems needed to provide animal experience, and the problem of assessing the quality and quantity of such experience, will then be considered. In conclusion, animal consciousness is seen to exist broadly across those species with the requisite control structures; the level of pain and other sensations depends in an increasingly well-defined manner on the complexity of the cerebral apparatus.

Developing effective enrichments is important for improving pig (Sus scrofa) welfare as it increases species-specific behaviours, decreases abnormal behaviours, and increases time active. However, few enrichments are available for sows in farrowing crates. Pigs are often observed to scratch, or rub against objects, however enrichments designed to provide a scratching outlet have never been tested in sows. We examined the behaviour and welfare of sows in farrowing crates when they were presented with one of two types of scratchpad enrichment. Sows (n = 18) of parities two (P2) and three (P3) were housed for 25 days and assigned no enrichment (Control) or a scratch-pad made of plastic mats (Plastic) or coir fibre mats (Fibre). Parity two Plastic sows scratched for a longer total duration than P2 and P3 Fibre sows, P3 Plastic sows, and P2 Control sows. Parity two Plastic sows also displayed scratching bouts more frequently than all except P3 Control sows. There were no body lesion differences between treatments. Abnormal behaviour and proportion of time spent in different postures also did not differ between treatments. Plastic scratch-pads may be a suitable enrichment for farrowing crates as they increased the natural behaviour of scratching. More research is needed to refine the scratch-pad design and measure motivation before it can be concluded that scratch-pads are a successful enrichment that should be implemented on-farm.

The well-documented versatility of donkeys (Equus africanus asinus) means that issues concerning their welfare can vary depending on how they are mainly used and their geographic location. The present study is the first assessment of donkey welfare to be systematically conducted in the Iberian Peninsula. This area is characterised by the coexistence of high levels of mechanisation and industrialisation, and human populations with low levels of formal education, still making use of donkeys in their daily work. This study aims to evaluate the main welfare problems affecting donkeys within this context. The welfare assessment was carried out in accordance with the first level of the AWIN protocol for donkeys. Only 37.6% of the animals evaluated showed all positive indicators, with no physical problem detected while the remaining 62.4% revealed at least one negative health indicator. Body Condition Score (BCS) was one of the main concerns, with around half of the donkeys exhibiting an inadequate body condition. Dental evaluation revealed similarly concerning results, with 62.8% of the animals assessed requiring treatment. Indications of hoof neglect were noted in 39.5% of the animals evaluated with a 9.84% incidence of lameness. Skin problems affected 26.7% of individuals. Only 41% of the animals displayed positive results for all behavioural indicators. Aside from BCS, the most prevalent problems were sub-optimal behaviour, pain reaction to cheek palpation, hoof disease and integument alterations. These issues should be prioritised, both as regards this specific donkey population and the education of their caretakers.

Nest design is one factor contributing to floor-laying in farmed poultry. We investigated: (i) if ducks (Anas platyrhynchos) prefer a particular nest substrate; and (ii) how important that preference is to them, indicated by stress-induced hyperthermia, egg albumen corticosterone, and behaviour. Twelve female ducks that were trained in a push-door task had temperature data loggers implanted. Preference testing identified the most and least preferred nest substrates between sawdust, astroturf, and hemp fibres. A behavioural demand test then required the ducks to use push-doors to access nests containing either the most or least preferred substrate. The preferred substrate door was loaded with increasing weight (0–120% of bodyweight, four nights per workload) and eventually blocked to prevent nest access. The least preferred substrate door remained unweighted. The overall rank order of substrate preferences was sawdust > hemp > astroturf. Six of the 12 birds pushed all workloads and attempted to push the blocked door. The area under the curve (AUC) of hyperthermia was larger when the preferred substrate door was blocked compared with 0%. The AUC did not differ between nights 2–4 of the blocked door compared with night 1. Egg albumen corticosterone was unaffected. We conclude that laying Pekin ducks prefer manipulatable nest substrates and accessing one is important enough to pay a cost. The results indicate that a manipulatable substrate should be provided to commercially farmed nesting ducks.

Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) is a welfare evaluation tool that uses a holistic approach to capturing an animal’s emotional state. Lists of QBA descriptors validated to assess pig welfare exist, but their definitions are often not described in peer-reviewed literature and the processes used to develop definitions are lacking. The objective of this study is to detail a systematic approach to creating clear definitions for a pre-existing fixed list of QBA descriptors and test their application. A fixed list of 20 descriptors from the EU Welfare Quality® assessment protocol for pigs was modified, and ten pig experts were recruited to assist with defining these descriptors in a focus group-style discussion. Half of the experts involved in creating descriptor definitions partook in a subsequent step, where the newly developed definitions were tested by implementing QBA on a video library of post-weaned sows selected to capture the breadth of sow behaviour. Experts displayed excellent agreement in identifying a PCA dimension interpreted as the valence of descriptors and good agreement for another reflecting arousal. Inter-observer reliability was also measured for each descriptor. Only two descriptors exhibited less than moderate agreement between experts whereas half of the descriptors evoked substantial agreement or better. These findings support our process to delineate clear definitions for a fixed list of QBA descriptors in pigs. This study is the first of its kind detailing the in-depth process of creating and verifying descriptor definitions for future use in sow welfare assessment.

Understanding the views of those working along the value chain reliant on livestock is an important step in supporting the transition towards more sustainable farming systems. We recruited 31 delegates attending the Pig Welfare Symposium held in the United States to participate in one of six focus group discussions on the future of pig farming. Each of these six group discussions was subjected to a thematic analysis that identified four themes: (1) technical changes on the farm; (2) farm and industry culture; (3) the farm-public interface; and (4) sustainability. The results of this study illustrate the complexity and diversity of views of those working along the associated value chain within the swine industry. Participants spent the majority of their time discussing current challenges, including technical challenges on the farm and public perception of pig farms. Participants were more hesitant to discuss future issues, but did engage on the broader issue of sustainability, focusing upon economic and environmental aspects.

Opercular deformity is a common morphological abnormality of laboratory and other cultured fishes, observed in a wide variety of species but with an unclear aetiology. Following observations of short opercula in stocks of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) reared in our laboratory, we developed a photographic key to score individual fish on a scale of 1 to 5. Inter-rater reliability was assessed as ‘almost perfect’. This visual method is quick and simple to use, can be used to score live fish in situ in tanks as well as sampled fish, does not require sophisticated equipment and provides quantitative information to investigate the aetiology of short opercula. Opercular size was scored for a cohort of in-house reared Atlantic salmon, in a time series of random samples of ≥ 30 fish (mean weights ranging from 0.8 to 299 g) over 14 months. Short opercula were first recorded during the parr stage, prevalence and severity increased as the fish grew, and the deformity was asymmetrical, occurring predominantly on the left side. Therefore, among the many potential causal factors, nipping is suggested as the primary cause of short opercula within our culture system, with asymmetry due to the clockwise current. We also present evidence that short opercula are associated with gill damage which supports this deformity being a welfare issue that merits assessment.

While the zoological community strives to provide the best possible living environment for non-human animals, space limitations constrain where zoos can house particular species. Therefore, an individual may live in proximity to animals that impact its behaviour, physiology, reproductive function or overall welfare status. This article examines how solitary and social species living in managed settings are positively and negatively affected by conspecific neighbours. When making housing decisions, zoos should follow husbandry recommendations outlined by zoo associations, integrate natural history information and attempt to view the environment from the perspective of the species of interest. Furthermore, researchers can collect survey, behavioural and physiological data to examine how variables, such as density, distance between neighbours, the age/sex of conspecifics and types/amount of exposure to others influence welfare. Ultimately, zoos should consider the needs of individuals and investigate whether welfare can be enhanced by modifying enclosures, husbandry routines, enrichment schedules or access to conspecifics. A zoo's willingness to alter an animal's exposure to conspecifics may have a substantial impact on physical, mental and emotional health.

Common marmosets, Callithrix jacchus, are widely used by research laboratories and are commonly provided with food in bowls. These centralised, unchallenging sources of food result in high foraging success for low foraging effort. Foraging devices, which require more skill and effort for foraging success, may broaden the behavioural profiles of marmosets by including more elements of their natural ethogram, reflecting improved welfare. The behaviour of eight female common marmosets was examined as a function of four different food distributions: food centrally located in a stationary bowl; food in a bowl that changed location each day; food centrally located in a stationary bowl, in addition to hidden food in a clustered food source (cluster feeder) or hidden food in dispersed food sources (dispersed feeders). Both the cluster and dispersed feeder distributions increased foraging, and there was a trend for reduced scratching and grooming in the presence of the feeders compared with the bowl-only treatments. The cluster feeder increased the amount of time a marmoset spent in a large room annexed to the home rooms more than the dispersed feeders, and this effect was sustained throughout the day after the feeders had been removed. Both feeders increased activity and movements within all areas of the annexed room compared with the bowl-only treatments; therefore, both feeder types improved the welfare of the captive marmosets more than the provision of food bowls.

Stray voltage (< 10 V) may impair animal welfare. Our objectives were to: i) determine the threshold at which heifers react to voltage and ii) investigate effects of past experience and random applications of voltage. Firstly, forty heifers were trained to eat from two metallic feeders at the end of a test corridor. For 20 heifers, voltage was applied for 2 min (every day in steps of 0.33 V, 0 to 5 V) to the feeder (F1) in which the heifer started to eat (VOLT). Heifers could change to the non-electrified feeder (F2) if they wished. Twenty heifers (CONT) followed the same procedure without voltage exposure. For voltages≥ 2.3 V, percentage of feed eaten from F1 (%FeedF1) was lower, time spent eating in F1 and latency to change to F2 were shorter compared to 0 V. At 2 V and above, more VOLT than CONT heifers performed muzzle-licking and abrupt head movements. Secondly, after four weeks, the same heifers were exposed to 3.3 V for either 11 consecutive days (DAILY, n = 20) or randomly on 4/11 days (RAND, n = 20). CONT heifers had higher cortisol concentrations than VOLT heifers on the first day of test. %FeedF1 was higher for RAND than DAILY heifers. The threshold at which avoidance behaviour started appeared to be 2.3 V in our experimental conditions. Adaptation was more difficult with unpredictable rather than predictable voltage and past experience seemed to reduce the effects of subsequent exposure.

When sheep are transported they are potentially exposed to a number of factors, including water and feed deprivation, low space allowance and elevated environmental temperature, that are not related to vehicle motion but could result in animal welfare problems, either on their own or in combination. In a 2x2 factorial experiment, groups of sheep (n = 6) were moved from individual pens where they had access to hay and water to environmental chambers kept at either 14°C or 21°C. Within each chamber, half the sheep had access to water but they were all kept at a space allowance of 041m2 sheep−1 without feed. After 24h they were returned to their individual pens and offered hay and water. Behaviour and a range of biochemical measurements of dehydration and feed restriction were recorded before, during and after the treatment period. During the treatment period there was no evidence of dehydration, and sheep with access to water drank less than they did before the treatment. The plasma concentration of free fatty acids increased during fasting and, post-treatment, the intake of hay was greater than before treatment. The rapid post-treatment intake of dry feed was associated with some evidence of dehydration, as indicated by increased plasma osmolality and plasma vasopressin concentration. This suggests that following provision and consumption of large quantities of feed after a period without access to feed and water during transportation, sheep must be allowed sufficient time to drink before a subsequent journey is undertaken.