Environmental conditions during the early life stages of birds can have significant effects on the quality of sexual signals in adulthood, especially song, and these ultimately have consequences for breeding success and fitness. This has wide-ranging implications for the rehabilitation protocols undertaken in wildlife hospitals which aim to return captive-reared animals to their natural habitat. Here we review the current literature on bird song development and learning in order to determine the potential impact that the rearing of juvenile songbirds in captivity can have on rehabilitation success. We quantify the effects of reduced learning on song structure and relate this to the possible effects on an individual's ability to defend a territory or attract a mate. We show the importance of providing a conspecific auditory model for birds to learn from in the early stages post-fledging, either via live- or tape-tutoring and provide suggestions for tutoring regimes. We also highlight the historical focus on learning in a few model species that has left an information gap in our knowledge for most species reared at wildlife hospitals.

A study was carried out during the period from September 2001 to August 2002 in Jimma zone, western Ethiopia to evaluate the husbandry and health of captive African civets (Vivera civetica). Wild civets were found in the wild in all 13 of the districts in the zone, although traditional civet-keeping was practiced in only five. Civet management practices were determined via the use of a questionnaire survey of 15 farms; containing a total of 107 civets. Health was assessed by routine clinical examination, and examination of faecal and blood smears of 55 civets selected at random. All civets were male and over one year of age, with a mean weight of 12.5 ± 0.79 kg. Fifteen percent were in poor body condition, and only 13% had a good body condition score. An average of 7.13 civets were kept on each farm. Farmers obtained wild civets by either trapping them themselves, purchasing them from dealers or a combination of both. The civets were housed separately in wooden cages, with an average size of 1.0 × 0.5 × 1.0 m (length × breadth × height) and kept in a communal thatched room. They were fed boiled meat, milk (fresh or powdered), eggs, butter, corn soup and fruit juice. Although an assessment of the behavioural parameters of welfare were outwith the scope of this study, trapping methods, adaptation processes, housing condition, restraint and the techniques for musk extraction from the anal glands were stressful and injurious, and have important welfare implications. Approximately 20 g of musk was expressed from a single civet every 9-15 days. The civets often sustained injuries while being restrained during musk harvesting; 14% had swelling and bruising, 6.5% fractures and 11.2% had eye lesions. Cestodes were the most prevalent gastrointestinal parasites, followed by ancylostomes, ascarides and Tricuris spp. Skin lesions were identified in 19.6% of civets examined and an assortment of fleas and ticks including Haemophysalis leachi, Rhipicephalus and Amblyoma spp were found on the body. Trypanosoma congolense and Babesia felis were identified in blood smears taken from four animals. This study shows there is an urgent need to invest in research into improving the welfare, husbandry and health of civets, as well as providing educational programmes for those who farm these animals.

Training using positive reinforcement is increasingly recognised as a valuable tool for the humane and effective management and use of laboratory-housed non-human primates. We utilised a mixed-mode questionnaire to survey use of training and other learning processes (socialisation, habituation and desensitisation) in over half of UK establishments using and breeding primates. The survey demonstrated that there is widespread awareness of training as a refinement technique and appreciation of its diverse benefits, but training is not used as widely or as fully as it might be. This is due to real constraints (principally staff and time and a lack of confidence in ability to train), and perceived constraints (such as a supposed lack of published information on how to train and assessment of the benefits, and an overestimation of the time investment needed). There is also considerable variation between establishments in the purposes of training and techniques used, with a reliance on negative reinforcement in some. We conclude that there is opportunity for refinement of common scientific, veterinary and husbandry procedures (such as blood and urine collection, injection, capture from the group and weighing) through use of positive reinforcement training, especially when combined with appropriate socialisation, habituation and desensitisation. We end this paper with recommendations on best practice, training techniques and staff education.

Use of a privacy panel in the home cage of female pair-housed rhesus monkeys has been reported to increase time spent in close proximity and time spent in affiliative behaviours. In the current study we measured these behaviours in more diverse populations; including male-male and male-female pairs of monkeys actively participating in cognitive experiments. We observed twenty-five pairs of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) both with and without the presence of a privacy divider. Monkeys spent significantly more time in the same half of the pair-cage when the divider was in place. A significant increase in affiliative behaviour was not observed. The effects of privacy dividers previously reported for female monkeys partially extend to male pairs and mixed sex pairs under conditions typical of an active research setting.

The effects on rabbits of four potential transport-related stressors (heat [HS], cold [CS], noise [NS] and mixing with unfamiliar animals [MS]) on certain physiological and meat quality parameters were studied. These are factors which may act to reduce the welfare of rabbits during their transport to the slaughterhouse. The rabbits were exposed to each potential stressor for four and a half hours prior to slaughter. HS groups showed the highest plasma concentrations of cortisol, lactate and glucose and greater packed cell volume (PCV) and osmolarity than the control group, and the meat exhibited a low initial pH as a direct consequence of lactic acid accumulation. The rabbits exposed to cold (CS) and noise (NS) showed physiological responses to the potential stressor, although to a lesser degree than rabbits exposed to heat. Cold stressed rabbits showed increased levels of creatine kinase (CK) and a higher PCV as well as decreased muscle glycogen concentration compared to the control. Rabbits exposed to noise showed muscular damage as demonstrated by increased levels of CK and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in the blood and a high final pH in meat. Mixing unfamiliar rabbits (MS) lead to higher CK activity, lower lactate and glucose concentration and the meat pH was slightly higher than the control group. In conclusion, these results suggested that rabbits exposed to heat were the most affected out of all three groups, although cold, noise and mixing with unfamiliar rabbits also had a detrimental effect on physiological and meat quality parameters.

The present study examines the plasma cortisol reaction of suckling and non-suckling calves and their dams to short-term emotional stressors. Twenty six cow-calf pairs were randomly allocated into one of two treatments: restricted suckling (R) or artificially milk-fed (A). On the day of weaning, blood samples were taken to determine the basal cortisol level in the calves' home-pen. Immediately, calves from both groups were moved to an unfamiliar surrounding and isolated. After sampling cows were then moved to a trimming pen, and restrained for three hours. Higher cortisol concentrations were found in A-calves in comparison with R-calves starting 90 min post-isolation through until the end of the experiment (90 min later). A significant increase was detected 60 min post-isolation in A-calves, with highest values averaging 29.22 ± 7.27 ng ml–1, decreasing to basal levels 130 min later. In cows, no difference in serum cortisol concentration was found either between treatments or over time. It was concluded that calves allowed to suckle react to a short-term emotional stressor with less plasma cortisol concentration than artificially reared calves.

This study assessed the health and welfare implications of feeding pigs a dry or liquid diet when housed in either fully-slatted or straw-based accommodation. Between April and October 2002, 1024 (Large White × Landrace) × Large White pigs, housed in pens of 32, were fed ad libitum from 34 kg to slaughter at 104 kg liveweight. Data were collected on a range of welfare parameters. Feeding system affected only respiratory health losses. Lameness and tail-biting tended to be more prevalent health conditions in the fully-slatted system, while in the straw-based system pigs showed significantly more enteric and respiratory disease. There were no significant treatment effects on skin lesions or bursitis of the hock. Liquid fed pigs had poorer hygiene scores than dry fed pigs, especially in straw-based housing. Liquid feeding reduced activity level and investigatory behaviours directed towards other pigs. Pigs with straw spent a large proportion of their time manipulating it. Pigs without straw were less active and spent more time manipulating the pen hardware. In post-slaughter assessments, there were no systems differences in lung lesions or osteochondrosis, but other measures differed between housing or feeding systems; pigs with straw had more severe toe erosions on the foot, while pigs without straw had more severe heel erosions. Gastric lesions were more pronounced with dry feeding and in the fully-slatted system. The results highlight the relative health and welfare advantages and disadvantages of these systems for finishing pigs.

The effects of cage enrichments and additional space were studied in 60 pairs of mink kits kept in standard cages (STD) and 67 pairs of mink kits kept in enriched cages (ENR). During the period from mid July to the end of September both groups had alternate access to one and two connected cages. From October, half of the mink in each group had permanent access to one cage and the other half permanent access to two cages. The enrichment of the cages consisted of extra resting places (tubes made of wire mesh and plastic) and occupational materials in terms of table-tennis balls and ropes to pull and chew. The mink were observed for an experimental period of nine months, from late lactation until the beginning of the following mating season. The welfare was assessed through behavioural traits (use of nest box and enrichments, activity out in the cage, stereotypies and fur-chewing) consumption of food and straw, bodyweight and level of faecal corticoid metabolites. The presence of enrichments resulted in less tail-chewing, fewer stereotypies, and a reduced level of faecal corticoid metabolites. In addition, the presence of enrichments led to fewer social interactions and reduced the consumption of straw. Regarding the frequency of utilising different occupational materials, the mink did not use the table-tennis balls, but the tubes and pull-ropes were given extensive use. Access to one or double cages had no effect on stereotypies, fur-chewing and physiology linked to welfare, but mink with access to double cages used the nest box less, had a lower consumption of straw and pull-ropes than the mink with access to only one cage. However, there were no indications of frustration when the mink were deprived of using double cages. We conclude that increased environmental complexity in the form of occupational materials improved the welfare of the mink, whereas doubling the cage size had little or no effect in relation to mink welfare.

This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of beak length on feed intake with regard to animal welfare. The study involved two treatments groups; short beak pigeons (G-SB; n = 7) and normal beak pigeons (G-NB; n = 7) and was carried out in two consecutive trials. Daily feed consumption, meal length and behavioural traits such as aggressive pecking, preening, resting and locomotor activity were recorded under different feeding conditions. In Trial I the birds had free access to food material during a single feeding period each day, whereas in Trial II feeding was terminated when a pigeon from any of the groups that stopped eating first, moved towards water. It took a longer time for the pigeons in the G-SB group to consume the same amount of feed. Furthermore, the pigeons in G-SB were affected significantly in Trial II and lost bodyweight more compared to G-NB. Although no significant difference between the groups on frequency of aggressive pecking during feeding was found in Trial I, restricted feeding significantly increased the frequency of aggressive pecking in the G-SB group in Trial II. The results of the present study suggest that short beak, which is a side-effect of artificial selection for aesthetic purposes, can cause serious welfare problems under restricted environmental conditions.

Cages for laboratory and pet hamsters are usually small. Using video recordings, the behaviour of sixty female golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), housed individually in four different cage sizes, was compared in order to draw conclusions about their welfare. The cage sizes were 1,800 cm2, 2,500 cm2, 5,000 cm2, and 10,000 cm2. Enrichment items and litter depth were standardised and all cages were equipped with a running-wheel (30 cm diameter). Stereotypic wire-gnawing, usage of the provided space, weight gain, and reactions to mild husbandry stressors were used as welfare indicators. Stereotypic wire-gnawing was observed in all cage sizes, but hamsters in small cages gnawed significantly longer and more frequently. There were no significant differences in running-wheel activity. In small cages hamsters made use of the roof of their wooden shelters as an additional platform more often than in big cages, which could suggest that they needed more space. Therefore, the welfare of pet golden hamsters in cages with a minimal ground floor area of 10,000 cm2 seemed to be enhanced compared with smaller cages.