With this edition, Animal Welfare enters its ninth year. The journal's circulation continues to increase. Currently, it is taken up in 36 countries and subscribers include 147 university and college departments and libraries. The growth is a reflection of the increasing interest in, and appreciation of the importance of, the scientific approach to animal welfare around the world. There are many important problems but a thorough understanding of animals’ needs, and how these can be met in practice, is required if progress is to be made.

In southwestern England, red deer, Cervus elaphus, are culled by rifle (‘stalking’) or by hunting with hounds (‘hunting’). We compare the welfare costs of the two culling methods. Observations of hunts revealed that likely stressors such as close proximity to humans and hounds, active pursuit, noise, obstruction and physical restraint prior to despatch were very common. Other stressors, such as wounding, were rare. The blood profiles of hunted deer were compared both with injured deer, which were put down because they were thought to be suffering, and with stags stalked in the rutting season, when mature males rapidly lose weight and may be damaged in fights. Extensively hunted deer did not differ from severely injured deer in measures of muscle disruption: in hunted deer measures of red blood cell damage and psychological stress were higher. Hunted stags killed during the rut showed markedly higher levels of measures of blood and muscle cell disruption, psychological stress and fat reserve mobilization than stalked stags killed during this season. Estimates of wounding rates by stalkers showed that 11 per cent of deer required two or more shots to kill, 7 per cent took 2—15 min to die and 2 per cent escaped wounded. Overall, we judged that the welfare costs associated with hunting red deer were higher than those associated with stalking, and reducing the welfare costs associated with hunting was much less feasible than reducing those associated with stalking.

The present experiment compared the fear-related behaviour of a mouse strain selected over 101 generations for high litter size with that of a randomly selected strain. The H-strain, selected for large litter size, has a mean (± SD) litter size at birth of 21.5 ± 3.5 pups. The randomly bred C-strain has a mean (± SD) litter size of 9.6 ± 2.2 pups. The elevated plus-maze, the light:dark test and a resident:intruder test were used to measure how the mice responded to novelty. In the elevated plus-maze, a well-validated model of animal anxiety, the H-strain was significantly more anxious (having a lower percentage of entries into open arms) than the C-strain at 9 weeks of age. In the light: dark test, in which the light levels were similar to those in the home environment, the H-strain did not differ significantly from the C-strain in its avoidance of the brightest area. In the resident: intruder test, where aggression-trained, older H-strain males were the residents, 11-week-old intruding mice of the C-strain spent a higher percentage of their time in flight and immobility than intruders of the H-strain. There were clear anxiety- and fear-related differences between the strains, which may be related to their selection history. The results illustrate a need for further studies on the consequences of selection for increased production for the ability of animals to adapt to their home environment and cope with environmental changes.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of providing mats in the farrowing pen on behaviour and lesions in sows (n = 38) and piglets. Nineteen of the sows and their litters housed in farrowing crates with metal slatted floors were provided with mats, the remaining 19 acting as controls. Sow skin was inspected pre-farrowing and at weaning: the skin and feet of piglets were examined when they were 6 days old. Skin lesions were scored (on a scale of 0 to 6) according to severity. Total lesion scores per sow and median total lesion scores per litter were calculated. Sow behaviour was recorded by direct observation at feeding. Usage of a heat pad for lying in the presence or absence of mats was assessed over a 2hr observation period. Median skin lesion scores of sows did not differ between treatments. Litters from the control treatment had lower skin lesion scores (median [range] 8 [2-12] vs 10 [5-21]; P < 0.05). Median lesion scores of the front legs tended to be higher for piglets on mats (median [range] 8 [1.5-13] vs 4 [1.5-8]; ns). Sows on metal flooring went from kneeling to lowering their hindquarters faster (median [range] 15 [2—45] s) than sows on mats (23 [11—54] s) (P < 0.05). Furthermore, they slipped more on their front (median [range] 2.7 [0-8.7] vs 0 [0-1.3] slips min1; P < 0.001) and hind (median [range] 5.3 [0.3-31.7] vs 1.9 [0-33.3] slips min1; P < 0.05) feet while standing, than sows on mats. More piglets lay on the heat pad when it was covered by a mat (mean ± SEM 45.97 ± 4.49 %) than when no mat was provided (29.29 ± 4.47 %)(P < 0.05). Mats improve sow comfort and reduce slipping. They encourage piglets to lie on the heat pad but cause damage to the skin of the front legs. Providing pigs with mats in the farrowing house could greatly improve welfare on slatted floors, but further research is needed to identify materials that are less abrasive.

Four groups of dogs, which had been subjected to housing conditions of varying quality for years, were assumed to experience different levels of stress. The groups were compared for behavioural and hormonal parameters in order to identify measures that indicate chronic stress in the dog and which may help to identify poor welfare in this species. As a standard for comparison, one of the four groups was composed of privately owned dogs; we assumed that chronic stress levels were relatively low in this group (GI). The three remaining groups of dogs (GII, Gill and GIV) were kept under conditions of low to relatively high austerity, and had basal urinary ratios of Cortisol to creatinine, adrenaline to creatinine and, to a lesser extent, noradrenaline to creatinine, that varied from low to high, respectively. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in Cortisol to creatinine ratios when comparing GI to GII, GUI and GIV and when GII was compared to GIV. Statistical analyses indicated that the mean adrenaline to creatinine ratio in GI differed from that in the remaining groups and that the ratio in GII differed from that in GUI. Noradrenaline to creatinine ratios differed significantly only between GI and GUI. Dopamine to creatinine ratios and noradrenaline to adrenaline ratios did not differ significantly between groups. When dogs were not disturbed, those that were kept under the most austere conditions typically had high levels of locomotor activity, nosing, urinating and paw lifting. After mild disturbance by a slamming door or in the presence of a researcher these animals reacted actively, with increased locomotor activity, circling and nosing, and they showed high levels of behaviours that have previously been associated with acute stress: body shaking, yawning, ambivalent postures and displacement behaviours. Chronic stress in dogs may be identified by increased paw lifting when animals are not disturbed and by ample behavioural expressions of arousal when they are mildly stimulated. Since some behaviours may occur in contexts not related to stress, behavioural data are easily misinterpreted with regard to chronic stress. Interpretation will only be meaningful when physiological measures such as urinary adrenaline to creatinine ratios and, especially, urinary Cortisol to creatinine ratios are also determined.

Farmed deer, of which the predominant species is the red deer (Cervus elaphus), are increasingly transported to abattoirs for slaughter rather than being shot at pasture. In order to satisfy meat hygiene and marketing requirements, the welfare of deer is often reduced because all farmed animals are stressed by commercial transportation. Several recent experimental studies (reviewed here) have found the magnitude of behavioural and physiological responses of deer to many aspects of handling and transport to be similar to those measured in other farm species, particularly ruminants. Thus, their welfare appears not to be unduly compromised despite their comparatively recent domestication. Deer are, however, particularly flighty and require specialized handling facilities and equipment, the key features of which are summarized.

Legislation covering transport of deer is already operative in many countries with the aim of safeguarding deer welfare. However, the responses of deer to commercial transportation have not yet been measured scientifically. This primary information is needed before a full assessment of the effects of transport on the welfare of deer can be made. Thermal conditions during transit are of importance for deer welfare and these have not been measured, either under experimental conditions or during commercial journeys.

Each of two 20-sow groups consisted of gilts ie virgin sows (one third) and sows (parity 2-5, ie sows which had given birth 2-5 times). One group was housed indoors with a straw-covered lying area and dunging area. Another group was housed outdoors with a covered straw lying area and two rooting fields. Behavioural observations were made on both groups: indoor sows were observed for 4h day−1, for 10 days (40h); outdoor sows were observed for 6h day−1, for 21 days (126h). Social interactions were classified as threat, bite, knock and push. Continuous data on the type of interaction and the winner or loser were recorded. Four measures of social status, based on social behaviour, were calculated: i) displacement index; ii) level of interaction; iii) success in interactions; and iv) matrix dominance. Spearman rank correlation coefficients between different ranked measures of social status within each group (outdoor or indoor) were significant for displacement index, success in interaction and matrix dominance. The level of interaction did not correlate with other measures (except for matrix dominance in the indoor group). Measures of displacement, success in interaction and matrix dominance provide highly consistent and correlated measures of social status.

The European Union (EU) has often been regarded as a prime mover in the cause of improved animal welfare. There is a great deal of European legislation to support this contention. This article discusses a recent case brought by the UK Government under Article 177 of the Treaty of Rome 1957 which challenges the assumption that EU law always favours animal welfare. We suggest that free trade is the driving force behind EU legislation and that where this conflicts with animal welfare, free trade is usually preferred.

The Feline Advisory Bureau has published three new information sheets which offer advice and guidance for those seeking to work with rescued or feral cats, or who wish to start their own boarding cattery. Setting up a Shelter for Rescued Cats, written by Anne Haughie (author of FAB's Cat Rescue Manual) provides a useful and comprehensive overview of the issues covered within her larger manual. It addresses the initial planning and equipment needed to ensure a successful shelter, and gives practical advice on accommodation, management and husbandry routines. The second leaflet, Setting up a Neutering Project for Feral Cats, also by Anne Haughie, details step-by-step how to set up and implement a feral cat neutering project, from its advance planning through to the trapping, handling and re-release of the now neutered ferals. It identifies the veterinarian support that is likely to be needed and stresses the importance of formulating an euthanasia policy prior to trapping. The last leaflet Starting a Boarding Cattery - What You Need to Know answers some of the common questions asked by people considering this option.

Live cockerels are an unwanted by-product of the egg production industry. On the day of hatching, chicks are sexed, the females are sent on for rearing as layers and the males are disposed of. The numbers killed are vast and methods of killing and standards of humaneness vary considerably around the world. In 1989 the Humane Slaughter Association, with the cooperation of the industry, carried out a survey of practices at UK hatcheries and was asked subsequently to produce a code of practice on humane disposal.

Russell and Burch's ‘3Rs’ principles of humane experimental technique - replacement, reduction and refinement - have been accepted widely throughout the world. Researchers generally recognize the need for a thorough search for, and wherever possible use of, alternatives to using live animals. Evidence that such searches have been undertaken is expected by ethical committees responsible for judging applications for research, and is required by law in the UK and some other countries. As written in the UK Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986, ‘the Secretary of State shall not grant a licence unless he is satisfied (a) that the purpose of the programme to be specified in the licence cannot be achieved by any other reasonably practical method not entailing the use of animals … ‘. There have been developments in many fields of science in finding alternatives to the use of animals and a great deal ofinformation has been published on the subject. However, this information is scattered widely in the scientific literature and because of this, and the relative scarcity of good reviews, searching for information on alternatives in particular fields can be difficult. The world wide web now provides the potential for obtaining information on almost any subject very rapidly but the value of this remarkable resource is, as all of us have come to discover, limited by the capacities of the available machinery for searching and finding. The ‘web’ is like a colossal encyclopaedia with entries of very variable quality and a misleading and fragmentary index. Considerable efforts are being made by a variety of organisations to develop improved methods for extracting reliable and complete information on 3Rs alternatives and this book published by FRAME (see below) is a very useful review.

With the correct equipment and technique, shooting is a quick and humane method of despatch and it has particular application in the humane destruction of casualty animals. This booklet published by the Humane Slaughter Association describes the principles and practice of using free-bullet firearms for the humane killing of large farm animals. It provides a very valuable source of information for veterinarians, slaughtermen, police firearms officers, and others who may be directly or indirectly involved in humane killing of livestock. After sections on anatomical considerations, physical principles (eg the calculation of muzzle energy) and the physiological effects of shooting including clear information on the signs of an effective shot, brief reviews are provided on types of firearm and ammunition with guidance as to their suitability for various purposes. There are then four pages describing the correct shooting positions (location and angle of entry) for humane despatch of cattle, deer, horses, sheep, pigs and goats. These are clearly illustrated, using photographs of midline sections through heads, to show the position and size of the brain in relation to external features. The booklet also contains information on the selection of appropriate firearms and ammunition, safety aspects, carcase disposal and routine maintenance of equipment. It is written clearly and concisely in handbook style and is well illustrated. With the exception of the information on legislation (which deals specifically with UK law), the subjects covered are relevant to humane despatch of livestock anywhere in the world and the booklet is highly recommended for all who may be involved in this work.

Control of stray and feral domestic dog populations is a problem in many parts of the world. These animals can be a threat to human health and a threat to wild animals, and their own welfare is often a matter of concern. The World Society for the Protection of Animals’ (WSPA's) new booklet on stray dog control provides a compendium of information on various aspects of the subject. It is intended, so the introduction informs us, as a supplement to the Guidelines for Dog Population Management published jointly in 1990 by the World Health Organisation and WSPA.

The background to the production of this publication - Managing African Elephants - by the Elephants Managers and Owners Association (EMOA) is outlined in the foreword. EMOA was formed in 1994 following recognition at a workshop in South Africa in 1994 of the need for a special organization to deal with the problems that had emerged as a result of translocations of elephants. The objectives of EMO A are listed at the back of the publication and they include: to advise and assist elephant owners on the appropriate management of their elephants; to initiate, promote and monitor research, technology transfer and data management on elephants; and to advise on and promote welfare issues of elephants. EMOA has accumulated a great deal of information on the translocation and care of elephants, much of which derives from experiences translocating animals from the Kruger National Park as part of the population control programme there. This information has been assembled into this publication which is directed at ‘buyers, sellers, managers and owners of elephants’.

In September 1998, the UK Government launched the Strategy for the Protection of Animal Welfare at Livestock Markets This report details the findings of a series of market inspections by the State Veterinary Service (SVS) to assess the extent of compliance with the current legislation and codes of practice. Carried out in the late autumn and early winter of 1998, almost all livestock markets in Great Britain were visited (484 inspection reports covering 204 markets). Table 1, taken from the report, gives a breakdown of the animals present at inspection.