Nineteenth-century European casinos tapped into new transportation and communication networks, and they were flexible enough to take advantage of the changing political map of Europe. The casinos found success amid these large structural transformations affecting the continent. They projected a new type of sociability that exuded a sense of exclusivity and democracy at once. The casino was also an environment that embraced social mixture. The casino attracted a transnational and polyglot clientele. Nineteenth-century casinos were physical expressions of contemporary ideas about fate and agency. The nineteenth-century casino also occasioned a prolonged discussion of the body, feeling, and mind, and there is a wide recognition of culture’s impact on the body. Seeing the effect that gambling had on players, nineteenth-century observers could consider how the self, the environment, and behavior all related to one another.

TO a person who has perused the foregoing pages much need not be said upon this subject; for, after such a series of error, of folly, and of imbecility, success, rather than failure, must have produced astonishment.

I shall however endeavour to collect into one point of view the principal causes of our miscarriage, and this with a view of proving that our want of success was not owing to the impracticability, or difficulty, of the enterprise, but to the measures pursued by its proposers and conductors.

In the 1st place the season was too far advanced when our proposals were first published; (the 9th of Nov. 1791) for if none of those unforeseen delays, which afterwards took place, had happened, we should not have been able to have taken possession of the island more than two months earlier than we actually did; which would not have been many days prior to the commencement of the rainy season; whereas the best time to have arrived at the island would have been about the middle of November, when we should have had certainly more than six months dry weather, in which to have erected habitations and cleared ground.

The next wrong step was the increasing of the number of the members of the committee, or council, to conduct the enterprize; for though I do not mean to say that any individual who was afterwards added to it was the principal cause of our failure, and much less do I mean to aver that any one of the six original proposers of the undertaking discovered either energy or talents sufficient to secure its success, yet, increasing their numbers, without adding any thing to their ability, was increasing the means, and the probability of weak measures and disunited counsels. Moreover, those who were afterwards added to it did not carry with them exactly the same views and intentions which governed the first proposers. I think therefore that it would have been much better to have left the management of the undertaking to the latter only; and the probability of succeeding would have been increased had they been reduced to three; and much more so, had one person only had the direction: for, I am fully convinced that in enterprizes of this kind the direction should be left to one. He should have full power; and should be responsible for the use of it.

In 1805, naval officer Captain Philip Beaver (1766–1813) published his African Memoranda: Relative to an Attempt to Establish a British Settlement on the Island of Bulama, on the Western Coast of Africa, in the Year 1792. His book, which forms the basis of this edition, provides an account of the extraordinary migration of 275 men, women, and children to Bolama, a relatively unknown island in the Bissagos Archipelago off the coast of Guinea-Bissau. Leaving England in April 1792 to set up a colony on the island, a year and a half later almost half the colonists were dead and the rest had returned home. The story of this venture and its melancholy outcome makes up the core of the book. The editorial material (in this introduction and the footnotes to the text) provides information about the people and places that are described, explains in detail the events that took place in establishing the colony, and discusses the Atlantic contexts of the venture at a time when transatlantic slavery was present in Britain and Africa. In doing so this new edition intends to highlight and explain the background and development of a little known, and arguably ill-conceived, attempt, to establish a settlement on the coast of West Africa. As well as seeking new opportunities to better their lives abroad, the colonists intended to demonstrate a socioeconomic model of engagement with Africans that would prove transatlantic slavery was unnecessary. At a time when anti-slavery initiatives were prominent in Britain through the efforts of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (formed in 1787) and the parliamentary campaign for abolition led by William Wilberforce in the late 1780s and early 1790s, the Bolama colonists wanted to engage with the problem of slavery in Africa itself. Their leaders embraced Wilberforce's belief that Britons should expiate themselves for their involvement in the slave trade and make ‘reparation to Africa, as far as we can, by establishing a trade upon true commercial principles’.

IT has been already related that the Calypso separated from us on the night between the 16th and 17th of April, and had arrived at Santa Cruz, the place of rendezvous, on the 4th day of May, from which latter place Mr. Dalrymple immediately sailed, on account of the small-pox being on board, without leaving for us any intimation of a second rendezvous, or his future intentions. At this time they had buried one man, David Cook, a labourer, who died of a consumption, and one child, Mary Williams, who died in convulsions.

Instead of proceeding to Port Praya, in St. Jago, and there waiting several days for the other vessels, as ought to have been done, the Calypso sailed directly for Goree, where they arrived on the evening of the 12th, a place ill calculated to supply the necessities of the colonists, Mr. Dalrymple had been induced to make this choice from an idea that he should there be able to pro-cure a pilot for the Bijuga channel.

Having been able to procure but little water, and less refreshments for the people, the Calypso sailed from Goree on the 19th, and on the 21st anchored in the Bijuga channel. On the 24th she got sight of the island of Bulama, and sent all the boats armed on shore. The next day one of the boats having returned, the ship got under weigh, and proceeded towards that island, where she anchored in the evening.

On the 26th a party of men was missing in the woods, and the next day another party was sent in search of them; some of the missing returned from the woods on the 28th, and the day following the remainder of them much fatigued. Some of them had, whether wantonly or not I am ignorant, set fire to the long dry grass, which spread with much rapidity to a great extent, and continued burning for many hours; in the mean time several of the colonists had erected small huts and tents on shore; parties wandered wherever they pleased in the day, and returned to the ship or not as they thought proper in the evening: in short, nothing could be more irregular or improper than their conduct.

IN consequence of the determination of Messrs. Dalrymple and Beaver, to attempt a settlement on the island of Bulama, they had made known their intentions on that subject to some of their military friends, who eagerly joined in their views, and in a few days the following gentlemen

met at Old Slaughter's Coffee-house, and formed themselves into a society for the purpose of establishing a settlement upon an eligible spot on the western coast of Africa: and, being the original subscribers, constituted themselves a committee to open a subscription, and to form regulations for the purpose of carrying their views into effect.

The island of Bulama, at the mouth of the Rio Grande, on the western coast of Africa, in the 11th degree of north latitude, was the spot fixed upon as the best adapted to the commencement of our undertaking.

We knew that it was uninhabited, and had every reason to believe that there would be no difficulty in purchasing it from those neighbouring chiefs who might claim it as their property; to establish ourselves on an island, instead of on the continent, was thought most eligible, as we should be more secure from any hostile attack, if any quarrel should unfortunately arise with the natives; and quarrels with them would be less likely to occur, as our insular situation would put it out of the power of the colonists to wander into any of the native villages; moreover, Mr. Dalrymple, when serving with his regiment last war, on the island of Goree, had collected much information, relative to this island – its harbours, productions, soil, &c. But what finally induced us to make this choice, was the very favourable account given of it by Mons. De la Brue, who had been director-general of the French Senegal Company, and who had visited this island in the year 1700.

THE following pages will make the reader acquainted with the melancholy, and unfortunate, result of an ill-contrived and badly executed, though well intended, expedition to the coast of Africa, in the year 1792: this expedition was proposed and undertaken by a few gentlemen, with a view to ascertain whether or not it were practicable to cultivate tropical productions on the coast of Africa, by means of its free natives. The question of the abolition of the slave trade had, at that time, for four or five years, been violently agitated; and some of those, who were advocates for its continuance, boldly asserted that the Africans were incapable of enjoying freedom, or being in any great degree civilized: and it was thought that this expedition would decide the injustice of such an opinion. Unfortunately however, for the Africans, it was so exceedingly ill conducted, that it was totally given up, ere the latter part of that opinion could be put to the proof; though the former part of it was unequivocally ascertained to be erroneous.

The ill success of this attempt, the report of the numbers killed by the natives, of those who had died from the unhealthiness of the climate, and of the mortality which had taken place on board the ship Hankey, all of which, moreover, were greatly magnified, were sufficient of themselves to deter others from engaging in such an enterprize; and would (if peace had even continued) have prevented those few, who remained upon the island of Bulama, from receiving any considerable reinforcement to their numbers, before the pernicious effects of these exaggerated reports had been considerably weakened. War however took place; and all hope of succouring the few who still kept possession of that island was at an end. Thus, without succour or assistance of any kind, after having maintained their position for nearly a year and a half, they were obliged to abandon the island, and the only two white men left, of those who had sailed on the expedition, returned to Europe.

FROM looking over the map of that part of Africa whose outline is traced in the beginning of Chapter VIII, and from what is there said, it will appear that on the western coast of Africa there is a fertile country, inhabited by various tribes, or nations; bounded by high mountains, two large navigable rivers, and the sea; intersected with many small rivers, with more than 500 miles of navigable coasts for ships of burthen, and many more than a thousand navigable for boats; having on its southern side, one vast, continued, safe and commodious harbour, of more than 100 miles in length from Jatt's island to the mouth of the Rio Grande.

In this great extent of fertile and navigable country, comprized between the rivers Gambia and Grande, there is only one European factory, and that indeed not upon the continent, but upon the island of Bissao, and no attempt has hitherto been made, except our fruitless one, by any European power, to settle any of these countries, for the purposes of cultivation; and no European power has certainly any claim to the soil, which belongs to its present possessors, the native Africans, except only so much as we have already purchased from them.

Admirably adapted as this country is to facilitate its own internal commerce, by means of its large rivers, and the numerous small ones, which, in a very great portion of it, admit the approach of small vessels to carry off its produce by water; yet it is not less eligibly situated for external commerce, its distance from this country being scarcely more than half that to the West Indies; and communication with it, at all seasons, practicable, and easy; without the dread of tiphoons and hurricanes; or being cramped, and retarded, by trade winds and monsoons.

This country then I should propose to colonize. I am well aware that this proposition will be opposed by a very respectable, and weighty, body of men, the West India planters; as well as by all those concerned in carrying out the slave trade: but even though it might be hostile to their interests, which I by no means concede, yet if it will be beneficial to the country at large, it is a measure that ought to be adopted.

Having brought my Journal to a conclusion, it may be necessary to say a few words on two or three points which might appear to require explanation, and to anticipate some objections which it is probable may be made to some of the transactions related therein.

Had I foreseen the exact situation in which I was to be placed, on the departure of the Calypso from the island of Bulama, I am not sure that I should have sailed on the expedition; not that the prospect of the difficulties to be encountered would have deterred me; but, the persuasion that, if I remained behind after the sailing of that ship, the law had armed me with no power to act with energy, would, I trust, have deterred persons less scrupulously obedient to the laws of their country than myself, from voluntarily placing themselves in such a situation.

To begin by avowing that the first act of mine, in the direction of the reduced colony, was an illegal one, seems to argue a degree of moral turpitude, inconsistent with the virtues which such a situation required. But when it is proved that such a situation could not possibly have been foreseen, and that such an act arose from absolute and unconditional necessity, it will not, it is hoped, be condemned.

It has already been related that we were ignorant of having committed any misdemeanour, in drawing up our constitution of government, previous to the arrival of the ships at Gravesend; and, that in consequence of our memorial to government, we were permitted to proceed, on condition only of our ‘having disclaimed and set aside a certain printed memorandum of agreement, and constitution of government, for a colony about to be established on or near the island of Bulam, &c’. Now this was taking from us every semblance of command over the colonists; however, having gone so far, it was deemed, even under that disadvantage, better to proceed than to abandon the undertaking.

The subsequent events, which led to the abandoning of the island by the majority of the settlers, no one could possibly have foreseen; but they were all such as rendered a coercive power, on the part of the governor, more necessary than ever.

THE wind, which had changed to the westward as soon as we had got through the Needles, became fair the next morn, and increasing gradually to a stiff breeze, enabled us to clear the Channel on the evening of the 15th, when Sophia Ford, a girl who had died the preceding day of a decline, was committed to the deep. The next day we lost sight of the Beggar's Benison in the morn, and although in every consideration it was highly desirable that the ships should continue together during their passage, yet, from a very unaccountable inattention on board the Calypso, that ship parted from us in the following night.

As the weather was very fine, and the Calypso had the advantage of the Hankey in sailing, no blame whatever could be attached to the master of the latter ship, the Calypso was lost sight of indeed almost in the wind's eye, so that it was ever in her power to bear down upon, and close with the Hankey.

The wind had hitherto been very moderate, but on the 19th it increased so much as to produce a sea which was very inconvenient to those unaccustomed to it, and the consequence was that most of the landmen, and all the women were sea sick; the latter, some of whom had infants at the breast, had been more than 24 hours without nourishment of any kind, and would have been so much longer if I had not undertaken to cook for them; for some, who would have relieved them if able, were labouring under the same disease; and the surgeon, whose more immediate duty it was to attend to them, was wholly destitute of feeling; he left to those, who had folly enough to feel, the charge of taking care of his patients; this certainly was not a very dignified employment, it was at least a useful one, and had I not undertaken it these poor women might have suffered much from hunger ere any other would have relieved them.

AT the bottom, or east end, of that immense harbour formed by continental islands on the north, and the Bijuga Archipelago on the south, and at the mouth of the Rio Grande, in the 11th degree of north latitude, is the island of Bulama. A small island, at its north-east point, is separated from the Biafara shore, by a narrow branch of the sea, not exceeding 200 yards, and the channel between this small island and Bulama affords a passage for boats at half tide, but not at low water; the whole east side of the island forms, with the Biafara shore, a remarkably fine harbour of about two miles in width, with water in every part of it for the largest ships, within a cable's length of the beach; and in all places a good clear bottom; its S.E. side confines the waters of the Rio Grande, whose embouchure is considered to be between the south point of this island, and Tombaly point on the Naloo coast; the west side of the island is separated from that of Galenas on the eastern edge of the Bijuga cluster, by a good broad channel with very deep water; the north side is bordered by extensive shoals which extend all the way to the island of Arcas. This island, I conceive to be about seven leagues in length, its breadth various, from five to two leagues; the land rises gradually, generally speaking, from the shore, to the moderate height of about 50 feet above the level of the sea, and appears to be covered with wood, though there are some natural savannahs in it, and some places cleared by its former inhabitants, or late Bijuga lords; the soil is every where rich and prolific, and affords ample pasturage to innumerable elephants, buffaloes, deer, and other wild animals which graze on its surface; the sea, which surrounds it, is sheltered from violent agitation in every direction, and abounds with excellent fish of various kinds; in short here reigns abundance of every thing requisite to the comforts of savage life.

Its general appearance is that of the most luxuriant vegetation. It seems to have been produced in one of nature's happiest moods.